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Dyslexia is a specific reading disorder, either congenital or acquired through brain damage. It is the most common form of specific developmental learning disorder (LD), which manifests as difficulties in learning to read. The term was first used in 1887 by German ophthalmologist Dr. Rudolf Berlin. Dyslexia also affects children with above-average intelligence. It is characterized by difficulties in proper and/or fluent word recognition, poor spelling, and decoding skills. These difficulties are a typical consequence of a deficit in the phonological (sound) component of language. The child reads slowly or, conversely, reads quickly and hastily with many errors, guesses at words, confuses letters, especially those that are visually similar (b-d-p). The child silently repeats letters and then pronounces the word aloud. Sometimes the child is unable to follow a line of text with their eyes or transition smoothly from one line to the next. Comprehension of the text is difficult as the child is so focused on the reading process that the meaning of the text escapes them. Some experts believe that dyslexia is a problem with recognizing and understanding any symbols that we use. This is why people with dyslexia often have difficulties with math, reading maps, and (traffic) signs. Many scientific studies have shown that some children with dyslexia have disorders in multiple areas of the visual system (Stein, Walsh, 1997) and that the processing of auditory signals in the temporal area of the brain may be disrupted (Witton et al., 1998). In addition, we often see poorer motor skills and balance in children with dyslexia, which would indicate dysfunction of the cerebellum (Fawcett, Nicolson, Dean, 1996). MRI examinations have shown abnormal activity and morphology (shape) in several areas of the brain, including the cerebellum, in adults with dyslexia. Symptoms of dyslexia in preschool Confusing sounds (s-l, r-l, p-b), omitting sounds or parts of words Using words in the wrong meaning Poor memory for common words Poor rhyme creation Inability to identify the first and last sound in a word Inability to memorize a nursery rhyme Difficulties with copying or tracing Disorders of short-term memory, attention, skill, clumsiness when dressing, tying shoelaces Inability to distinguish left from right Difficulty repeating rhythms Symptoms of dyslexia in primary school Excessive expenditure of energy and time on schoolwork Frequent and rapid fatigue Slow performance Making a lot of mistakes Skipping words and lines Letter (p-b-d, g-q, e-a) and sound confusion Difficulties in learning the alphabet, tables, days of the week, months Often confusing left and right Expression problems (poor vocabulary) Difficulties in grammar Difficulties in learning a foreign language Attention and concentration problems Psychological problems - depression, aggression Source: Navrátilová D., 2009 Dysorthography is a specific disorder of spelling and often occurs in conjunction with dyslexia. This disorder does not affect the entire grammar of the language, but rather concerns specific dysorthographic phenomena: omissions, substitutions of visually similar letters in written form, misspellings, errors due to articulation difficulties, incorrect placement or omission of vowel lengths, and errors in softening (in czech language). It also negatively affects the application of grammatical knowledge. Even after remediation, a student with dysorthography still makes mistakes but requires more time than other students. In time-limited tasks such as dictations and written tests in any subject, dysorthographic errors may reappear and there may be more errors in phenomena that the student has learned orally without difficulty and can explain correctly (Bartoňová, 2018). Symptoms of dysorthography in elementary school: Difficulty with short, time-limited tasks, especially dictations and ten-minute writing exercises. Difficulties are also manifested in the teaching of a foreign language. The student has much greater difficulty distinguishing certain graphic symbols. When writing letters, the student often confuses their order. Source: Bartošová M. 2018 Specifické poruchy učení Primary reflexes and dyslexia Persistent primary reflexes can cause symptoms of dyslexia and dysorthography, especially Asymmetric Tonic Neck Reflex (ATNR), Tonic Labyrinthine Reflex, and Moro Reflex. Persistent Asymmetrical Tonic Neck Reflex (ATNR): Inhibits the development of smooth eye movements that are necessary for reading. Children with persistent ATNR reflex can read the first (left) part of the page, but often cannot "move" their eyes across the middle line to read the right part of the page (usually they have to turn their head instead of just moving their eyes). Inhibits eye coordination, so the child may see everything blurred or double. Children usually do not perceive this as a problem because they are used to poor vision, and for them, it is normal. Inhibits the proper development of connections between both hemispheres of the brain, so both dominance and specialization of brain centers cannot develop optimally. The connection between both hemispheres, called corpus callosum, develops until the child is six or seven and a half years old. Therefore, it is normal for younger children to reverse letters and numbers. Only after the age of 8, reversing letters and numbers is considered a symptom of dyslexia. If ATNR persists, the balance system is often less developed, and if ATNR persists, the child often has poorer balance and coordination of movements, especially hand-eye coordination. In 2006, McPhillips studied 739 children aged seven to nine in Northern Ireland. The results of the study showed that children with reading difficulties (either with a diagnosis of dyslexia or without) had persistent ATNR more often than other children. Persistent Tonic Labyrinthine Reflex (TLR): It worsens spatial perception, causing a child to misjudge distances. Poor spatial orientation often causes a child to stand in the "private" space of other children (e.g., walking too close to other children's feet, standing too close). It causes a worse sense of right and left, leading to clumsiness, and the child misunderstands three-dimensional images and "mirrored" images. Moro Reflex: causes problems with focusing attention and visual stress. Article Author: Marja Volemanová Sources: FAWCETT, Angela J.; NICOLSON, Roderick I.; DEAN, Paul. Impaired performance of children with dyslexia on a range of cerebellar tasks. Annals of Dyslexia, 1996, 46.1: 259-283. NAVRÁTILOVÁ D., 2009, Obecné projevy dyslexie v mateřské, základní a střední škole STEIN, John; WALSH, Vincent. To see but not to read; the magnocellular theory of dyslexia. Trends in neurosciences, 1997, 20.4: 147-152. VOLEMANOVÁ, Marja. 2019. Primární reflexy, opomíjený faktor problémů učení a chování u dětí. 2. rozšířené vydání. Statenice : INVTS, 2019. 978-80-907369-0-0 WITTON, C., et al. Sensitivity to dynamic auditory and visual stimuli predicts nonword reading ability in both dyslexic and normal readers. Current biology, 1998, 8.14: 791-797.

Dyspraxia is a specific developmental disorder of motor function, defined as an impairment or immaturity in the planning and organization of movements. Dyspraxia also affects children with above-average intelligence. The disorder was first recognized in the medical field at the beginning of the 20th century, initially described as "congenital clumsiness". Later, dyspraxia was defined in the 1947 edition of The American Illustrated Medical Dictionary as "partial loss of the ability to execute coordinated movements". In the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), it is referred to as a specific developmental disorder of motor function. A child with dyspraxia demonstrates a mismatch between their motor abilities and their age. They have difficulty acquiring complex motor skills, and their gross motor skills are delayed (especially in imitating demonstrated movements). Subsequently, they experience difficulties with tasks that require fine motor skills. Dyspraxia is not a joint mobility disorder; its basis lies in the difficulties in perceiving the body map, and processing kinesthetic, tactile, and vestibular stimuli. Gross motor skills are delayed in development, and the child has difficulties imitating observed movements. Gross motor skills involve movements of the whole body, large muscle groups, such as walking, stair climbing, running, jumping, swimming, etc. Subsequently, the child has difficulty acquiring fine motor tasks, such as writing, sewing, buttoning, tying shoelaces, playing with a ball (with hands or feet). Children with this disorder have difficulty learning to eat with a spoon, speak clearly and intelligibly, dress themselves, ride a bike, and so on. They suffer from feelings of inferiority. Because difficulties in coordinating movements and clumsiness persist into adulthood, an unrecognized disorder can negatively affect a person's entire life. A child with this disorder is often labeled as clumsy, uncoordinated, or unskillful (Zelinková, 2007). A. Kirby summarizes the findings on dyspraxia as follows. Dyspraxia is not a disease; it is more a collection of symptoms that do not have a uniform cause. There are no known genetic causes, and no significant neurological findings. The most common manifestations are muscle weakness and inflexibility or decreased muscle tone accompanied by increased flexibility and mobility (Kirby, 2000). Symptoms of dyspraxia in children from birth to three years old include hyperactivity, sleep and feeding problems. Often, the child does not go through the crawling stage, later sits, then begins to walk, and even the development of speech is delayed (in 70% of cases). Other significant indicators of developmental deficits in children already at birth are feeding and food. The sucking reflex is often weakened, and breastfeeding is unsuccessful. Subsequently, choking and gagging occur during meals. The child prefers pureed or liquid food. A complicating factor in independent feeding is poor coordination of hand-to-mouth movements. The child has difficulty feeding themselves, spills liquid food or drink, and struggles to chew. Speech development is also one of the first areas where parents become aware of their child's difficulties. They notice that the child does not experiment with sounds, and reflexive and imitative babbling is delayed. Delayed speech development is caused by difficulties in performing and coordinating movements of the articulatory organs: lips, tongue, soft palate, and teeth. In later years, children with dyspraxia often experience difficulties with: Gross motor skills: movements of the whole body and motor coordination during walking, running, jumping, throwing and catching a ball, riding a bike or scooter. Fine motor skills: tabletop games, their selection and execution, use of tools (hammer, pliers, scissors, etc.), drawing freely and copying basic shapes. Speech: level of articulation and understanding of speech. Self-care: eating, dressing. Social behavior: engagement in a group, relationship with adults. Source: (Zelinkova, 2007) Primary reflexes and dyspraxia Symptoms of dyspraxia can also be caused or worsened by persistent primary reflexes. The Tonical labyrinthine reflex (TLR) causes: Poor gross motor skills Changes in muscle tone (often hypotonic) and balance problems, which make it difficult for the child to stand still. Problems focusing their eyes on close objects and following moving objects with their eyes (for example, kicking a ball will be difficult for the child due to poor balance and eye focusing). Children appear clumsy and slow. Problems with estimating distances, often causing them to bump into things and fall. Difficulty maintaining a straight posture while writing and reading. They may need to support their head with their hand or lie face down on the table. Leaning forward helps the child apply more pressure with the pencil on the paper, which often results in holes in the paper or broken pencil tips. The Symmetrical tonic neck reflex (STNR) causes: Problems with balance and hand-eye coordination. Inability to sit still and straight on a chair. Tilting their head forward (necessary for reading) immediately triggers the STNR reflex, causing their arms to bend and their legs to stretch. These children tend to be nervous and restless, and they often wrap their legs around the chair legs, sit on their heels, or do anything to stabilize their legs. They often rock back and forth on the back legs of the chair as a reaction to the reflexive leg stretching - "rocking on the chair." The Moro reflex causes: unwanted movements of the arms, legs, and whole body extension (tilting) whenever the head is tilted or when an unexpected visual or auditory stimulus appears. These reactions are usually compensated for by higher muscle tone, especially in the neck area. increased sensitivity to visual and auditory stimuli. the child may not be able to catch a ball because they cannot focus properly on the ball or maintain attention when another object enters their peripheral field of vision. The approaching ball can also trigger the Moro reflex - the child lifts their arms and tilts their trunk - it looks like the child is not even trying to catch the ball. This reflex does not occur when the child (even unconsciously) looks away from the approaching ball or even closes their eyes. The Rooting and Suck Refle x and the associated Babkin Response (Palmar-Oral Reflex) cause: mouth movements whenever the hand is used - i.e. sucking movements when the child writes or protruding the tongue when sewing may be an example. frequent licking of the lips (causing redness and dryness around the lips), as well as drooling, smacking, spitting, poor articulation, and difficulty synchronizing breathing movements during speaking or eating. The Asymmetrical Tonic Neck Reflex (ATNR) causes: higher muscle tension in the neck area and leads to problems with arm activity and hand-eye coordination worse fine motor skills difficulty for the child to simultaneously move both sides of the body (for example, the child may find it difficult to manipulate both a fork and a knife at the same time and prefers to use them alternately) a cramped pencil grip poorer hand-eye coordination (the child may have difficulty copying something from the board into their notebook or catching and throwing a ball). poorer cooperation between the brain hemispheres. If the hemispheres don't cooperate properly and don't complement each other, the brain consumes far more energy (which would otherwise be used by the body), and the child becomes tired more quickly. Article author: Marja Volemanová Sources used: Kirby, A. (2000). Nešikovné dítě. Praha: Portál. Volemanová, M (2019). Přetrvávající primární reflexy, opomíjený faktor problémů učení a chování. Statenice: INVTS. Zelinková, O. (2007). Dyspraxie. Pedagogika roč. LVII.

ADHD stands for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, which is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects both children and adults. It is characterized by persistent patterns of inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity that can interfere with daily functioning and development. If the disorder is characterized by difficulties in sustaining attention, being easily distracted, and having trouble organizing and completing tasks but does not involves hyperactivity and impusivity, the disorder is sometimes also called ADD (Attention-Deficit Disorder) According to Dr. Malá from the Child Psychiatry Clinic at the Motol University Hospital in Prague, ADHD is a disorder characterized by neurodevelopmental delay with deviations in the development of the central nervous system and impaired regulation at the level of neurotransmitter systems (noradrenergic and dopaminergic). This, in turn, affects all cognitive functions. MRI examinations demonstrate reduced brain volume, cerebellum, basal ganglia primarily on the right side, and the corpus callosum (Malá, 2005) A typical manifestation of this disorder is weak attention, easily getting tired, and the child's inability to sustain longer and higher-quality focus. These children cannot endure anything for long and get bored quickly. Children with ADHD struggle with maintaining attention to complete assigned tasks within a specific time limit. Among the symptoms of inattention in these children are situations where they don't listen even when spoken to directly. They have difficulties with task and activity organization and can be easily distracted by external stimuli. In social situations, they often shift from one conversational topic to another. Hyperactivity refers to an excessive urge for movement, activity that is purposeless and even senseless, and is not easily controlled or regulated. The child is unable to coordinate and control it. This is associated with a tendency for impulsive reactions. Typical characteristics are aimless and unnecessary movements. In school, these children often leave their seats, play with objects unrelated to the lesson, frequently interrupt others, and exhibit excessive speech. They produce atypical sounds that accompany their actions or extensively comment on their own activities. Excessive and unnecessary activity requires a significant amount of energy. It involves not only an increase in the frequency of various activities but also an increase in their intensity. For example, the child tends to run rather than walk. Their activity is clearly disproportionate to the situation. Restless children, however, do not have an excess of energy and, furthermore, are unable to channel it effectively (Vágnerová, 2002). Under the symptom of impulsivity, we include, for example, the tendency of children to react without thinking, suddenly, and often inappropriately to stimuli. Impulsivity also means an inability to anticipate the consequences of their actions or to regulate their behavior. Engaging in risky activities that endanger their health is common. The child does whatever comes to mind, unable to control their expressions and unable to wait for anything. Impulsive children are unable to plan and control their behavior. They often exhibit immaturity in their personality. Frequent fluctuations in their performance and emotional state can be observed. These children are socially disruptive, unpleasant, and elicit negative reactions from their surroundings. The uncontrollable fluctuations in CNS function are often mistakenly interpreted as a motivational disorder (Vágnerová, 1999). It is important to determine the cause of ADHD or ADD symptoms. As mentioned before, one possibility is that changes in the brain are evident. Medications such as Ritalin can be helpful for these children. However, it is also possible that primary reflexes, often in combination with poor sensory integration, have caused the symptoms of ADHD/ADD. If the cause of the symtoms are not integrated primary reflexes, the therapy is relatively straightforward: we inhibit primary reflexes through exercises and improve sensory integration (medication often doesn't help these children). However, sometimes children have brain changes and primary reflexes persist alongside them. In such cases, it is important to address everything that can be done. By inhibiting primary reflexes and improving sensory integration, the manifestations improve, although they may not completely disappear. How is it possible for primary reflexes to cause ADD/ADHD symptoms? Primary reflexes influence a child's psychomotor development. They affect the foundation of everything, which is why persisting primary reflexes can have such diverse symptoms. Let's take an example: every time the Moro reflex is triggered, adrenaline and cortisol are released into the bloodstream. The release of adrenaline is part of the "fight or flight" response, preparing the body for combat or escape. Increased levels of adrenaline cause hyperactivity, aggression, and the need to influence the environment. Cortisol affects blood sugar levels. Low blood sugar levels lead to irrational behavior. The Moro reflex causes: increased sensitivity to sensory stimuli, which tires the child and makes them even more prone to triggering the Moro reflex (and the release of additional adrenaline and cortisol). In school, these children are often reprimanded to focus only on their work and not pay attention to others. The Asymmetrical Tonic Neck Reflex (ATNR): hinders the proper development of the corpus callosum (the connection between the two hemispheres, which normally develops by the age of six and a half to seven years in a child). Optimal development of specialized brain centers cannot occur if the corpus callosum is not properly formed. Children with poorly developed connections tend to favor right hemisphere activities. They may be impulsive, have difficulty understanding cause and effect, and not learn from previous experiences. They struggle to grasp relationships and sequence, negatively affecting their perception of time. Children with poorly developed corpus callosum have difficulty waiting (like young children) and understanding the duration of one minute or the concept of tomorrow or next month. The Tonic Labyrinthine Reflex (TLR) causes: difficulty for the child to relax. poorer body posture. Muscles and ligaments on the front side of the body may shorten, which can hinder breathing and reduce oxygen levels in the blood. This can lead to improper brain functioning since the brain requires sufficient oxygen for proper operation. difficulty for the child to sit still for extended periods. The Symmetrical Tonic Neck Reflex (STNR) causes: worse focus. children to constantly engage in physical activities that other children do unconsciously. that, while sitting, children "wrap" their legs around the chair legs, sit on their heels, or do anything else just to fix their legs. In response to reflexive stretching of the lower limbs, they often balance on the back legs of the chair - "rocking on the chair." The Galant Spinal Reflex causes: the child's inability to sit still in a chair. discomfort when wearing tight pants or belts because they stimulate the lumbar area of the back. problems with bedwetting. Older children who no longer wet the bed are unable to concentrate sufficiently on their work because they constantly think about whether they need to go to the bathroom. Due to persistent primary reflexes, optimal neural connections in the brainstem are not formed. Suboptimal neural connections in the brainstem can lead to improper functioning of the reticular formation . The reticular formation is a functionally important integration system and part of the brainstem. Its malfunction can result in brain overload, causing confusion and irritability. The inability to control impulses from the brain to the body can also contribute to poorer behavior. Behavior becomes impulsive, coarse, and lacking self-control. Article author: PhDr. Marja Volemanová, PhD. Used sources: Vágnerová, Marie (2002).Úvod do psychologie, 2. vydání. Praha: Univerzita Karlova v Praze. ISBN 80-246-0015-3 Vágnerová, Marie (1999). Vývojová psychologie. Praha: Portál. ISBN 978-80-7178-308-4 Volemanová, Marja. 2019. Primární reflexy, opomíjený faktor problémů učení a chování u dětí. 2. rozšířené vydání. Statenice : INVTS, 2019. 978-80-907369-0-0

Article published at: VOLEMANOVÁ, M. (2017) Neuro-vývojová stimulace ve školní praxi jako nástroj k inkluzi. Integrace a inkluze ve školní praxi, ročník IV, číslo 9, květen 2017. ISSN 2336-1212 Primary reflexes have a significant impact on a child's psychomotor development. Through these reflexes, the brain gradually learns to properly control the functioning of the body, such as processing visual and auditory information, gaining balance and spatial vision, gross and fine motor skills including ocular and oral motor skills, hand-eye coordination, and more. As higher levels of the brain mature, primary reflexes fade away, mostly between 6 to 12 months of age. If control by higher brain functions over primary reflexes is insufficient, these reflexes can remain active into later life. The problems that persistent primary reflexes can cause are very diverse. For example, they can lead to poorer gross and fine motor skills, poor coordination of movements, reading and writing difficulties, concentration problems, bedwetting even after the age of 5, thumb-sucking beyond the age of 5, balance problems, poorer visual or auditory perception, extreme emotional instability, speech and articulation problems, and more. In school, we are accustomed to addressing what children cannot do. But do they even have the prerequisites to handle it? Persistent primary reflexes. A child is born equipped with primary reflexes, which gradually disappear as the child gains a certain degree of voluntary control over specific functions during proper development. It is assumed that inadequate inhibition of primary reflexes may be related to learning and behavioral disorders later in life. Currently, there are more studies linking primary reflexes, psychomotor development, and learning and behavioral disorders. Persistent primary reflexes can cause symptoms of many specific learning disorders ("dys" disorders) and attention disorders. If the symptoms are caused by persistent primary reflexes (which are not a classic case of "dys" disorder, although the symptoms are similar), we can solve these problems with simple exercises to inhibit primary reflexes and improve sensory integration. If a child has persistent primary reflexes in addition to learning disorders, the symptoms may be more pronounced. With exercises to inhibit primary reflexes, we can then alleviate these difficulties, but not completely eliminate them. The Tonic labyrinthine reflex (TLR) is one of the primary reflexes that, in my experience, often persists in children with learning and behavioral disorders, so I will focus on it more in this post. TLR is a reflex reaction that is activated by a change in head position in the sagittal plane. It originates from the vestibular organ of the inner ear labyrinth. When we tilt a child's head back, the tone in the extensor muscles throughout the body increases (the child stretches), and conversely, when we tilt the child's head forward, the tone in the flexors increases (the child curls up its limbs). TLR helps the child cope with gravity at a time when they do not yet have sufficiently developed abilities to lift and hold their head and neck upright, and if we do not support the child's head, their muscles are either mainly in extension or in flexion. TLR greatly affects gross motor skills. Newborns have only minimal voluntary control over their bodily movements, and every movement of the head is associated with a reflex response. These are holokinetic movements (movements of the entire body). Within a few weeks of life, babies start to control the muscles of their neck and head. Then the child gradually learns to control the muscle tone in the cephalocaudal direction, i.e. gradually from the head, through the upper half of the body, the lower half of the body to the heel. This enables the child to control the position of the head in relation to the body. This ability is essential for later maintaining balance, an upright posture, and coordination. The Tonik labyrinthine reflex helps this process. Before the child can gain control over the rest of the body, it must learn to control the head. Later, independent movements of the head and limbs develop, including the ability to cross limbs over the "center of the body", which is necessary for cross-movements. The child also needs to learn to move its head back and forth without triggering reflex limb movements. Primary reflexes trigger movements, and these repeated movements help strengthen nerve connections between the body and the brain. The child gradually gains control over body posture, develops strength and coordination, strengthens balance development, mobility, vision, hearing, speech, learning ability, and communication. Skills that form the complex of gross motor skills are considered the foundation of many higher learning and behavioral abilities. For a child to learn well in school, they must have the ability to sit still, concentrate, hold a pencil correctly, and need a range of well-developed eye movements necessary for reading written text without skipping words or lines. Gross motor skills are also related to muscle tone. If TLR persists, it often creates an imbalance (and therefore faulty posture), resulting in changes in statics and motor stereotypes. If TLR persists more into extension, children often have hypertonus (increased muscle tone), their muscles are firm to the touch, and these children tend to walk on their toes. When they are happy or upset, the hypertonus increases, and they "tip-toe" while waving their hands. Many children with learning disabilities, attention disorders, or autism have altered muscle tone. Lower muscle tone is also seen in children where TLR persists more into flexion. If such a child sits while reading (so that the head is slightly bent forward), it affects their muscle tone, causing an increase in flexors' tone - after a while, the child sits with rounded back, supporting their head or even lying on the table. We find a forward head posture, accentuated cervical lordosis, and altered scapula position. Increased tension of the chest muscles causes greater kyphosis of the thoracic spine (rounded back) and a forward shoulder posture. Such children also have a "bulging belly," weak abdominal muscles, and greater lordosis of the lumbar spine. TLR, therefore, affects both body and head posture. Breathing can be affected, and blood oxygen levels can be reduced, which can cause improper brain function since the brain needs enough oxygen to function correctly. Persistent TLR worsens concentration, as each movement of the head up or down causes flexion or extension of the upper and lower extremities reflexively. It is very difficult, for example, to concentrate on reading a text. Similarly, copying text from the board is very challenging because this activity requires the head to alternately bend forward and backward, causing reflexive extension and flexion of the upper and lower extremities. Children with persistent TLR are constantly engaged in physical activities that other children do unconsciously, making them tire quickly. At the end of the lesson, these children lie with their faces on the table or support their heads with their hands. Children with persistent TLR will be nervous, restless in the classroom, "wrap their legs around the legs of the chair," sit on their heels, or do anything else to fix their legs. In response to reflexive extension of the lower extremities, they often balance on the back legs of the chair - "rock on the chair," or stand up. Lower muscle tone, also known as hypotonic muscles, are longer than usual at rest, causing increased elasticity and lower joint stability, so these children have less stable posture, less strength, poorer endurance, and inadequate proprioception.Proprioception is the ability of the nervous system to perceive the body's position without movement. It is necessary for proper coordination of movement, registering changes in body position, muscle tone, and some reflexes. Incorrect information from one source (both sensory organs and proprioceptors) affects other sensory organs as well. Some children who have little proprioceptive information need to constantly move to compensate for the lack of kinesthetic proprioception (a set of feelings that allow for the perception of movement). Babies and older children with poor proprioception often need to be held tightly, hugged, and require physical contact when falling asleep and sleeping (they only sleep when cuddled up to their mother). An important component of kinesthesia is kinesthetic memory, which means learning positions and sequences of changes in those positions for repeated, routine movement. If we can rely on kinesthetic memory while performing a certain activity, we can also focus our attention on other aspects of our environment or other tasks. For example, we should have writing stored in kinesthetic memory. One of the most difficult tasks for kinesthetic memory is human speech. Proprioception is the ability of the nervous system to perceive the body's position without movement. It is necessary for proper coordination of movement, registering changes in body position, muscle tone, and some reflexes. Incorrect information from one source (both sensory organs and proprioceptors) affects other sensory organs as well. Some children who have little proprioceptive information need to constantly move to compensate for the lack of kinesthetic proprioception (a set of feelings that allow for the perception of movement). Babies and older children with poor proprioception often need to be held tightly, hugged, and require physical contact when falling asleep and sleeping (they only sleep when cuddled up to their mother). An important component of kinesthesia is kinesthetic memory, which means learning positions and sequences of changes in those positions for repeated, routine movement. If we can rely on kinesthetic memory while performing a certain activity, we can also focus our attention on other aspects of our environment or other tasks. For example, we should have writing stored in kinesthetic memory. One of the most difficult tasks for kinesthetic memory is human speech. In this article, I will also address the Moro reflex , which is important during the physiological period because it helps in the development of the respiratory mechanism (in utero), facilitates the first breath, opens the airways in the event of choking, and thus helps the child survive. A helpless child responds to unpleasant stimuli (pain, uncertainty, hunger) with the Moro reflex, begins to cry, and attracts the attention of an adult. However, it should be inhibited in its basic form by 2-4 months of age and replaced by the mature Strauss reflex. If the Moro reflex is not inhibited, the child is oversensitive to (some) sensory stimuli and reacts to them too strongly. Unexpected sound, light, movement, change of position, or balance can activate the Moro reflex in this child, and the child will be constantly "on guard." Activation of this reflex also stimulates the production of adrenaline and cortisol (these hormones are also sometimes called stress hormones), which increases the child's reactivity and sensitivity. Increased adrenaline levels cause hyperactivity, aggressiveness, and the need to influence what is happening around. Cortisol affects blood sugar levels. Low blood sugar levels cause irrational behavior. Children with persistent Moro reflex perceive all stimuli equally strongly and cannot "filter out" less important stimuli, which can result in overload. The child is interested in everything that is happening around, their eyes move after every stimulus that enters their peripheral visual field, they look everywhere "where things are flying." In sensory integration, this phenomenon is called a sensory modulation disorder, and children with such an indication can be either hyperreactive, hyporeactive, "seekers of sensory stimuli," or these states alternate. Neurodevelopmental therapy Neurodevelopmental therapy (NDT) is a method that is based on the assumption that one approach is often not enough, and therefore combines different approaches and methods, such as: inhibition of primary reflexes, sensory integration (vestibular, tactile, auditory, and others), special education (mainly improving partial functions such as visual differentiation and memory, auditory differentiation and memory, intermodality, seriality, and others), physiotherapy, and visual screening (checking binocular functions). NDT is used individually. Children attend therapy (with parents) once every 6-8 weeks, where they learn prescribed exercises, which they then practice every day at home. Gradually, in this way, we inhibit all primary reflexes and improve the cooperation of brain hemispheres. We give children a solid foundation on which they can build further (school) skills. Neurodevelopmantal stimulation, NDS Learning through Movement The foundation of Neuro-Developmental Stimulation (NDS) in school practice is Neuro-Developmental Therapy. Tests and exercises are adapted to be used effectively for larger groups of children. NDS is suitable for children as young as 4 years old, but can be used for any age. Ideally, it should be practiced in preschool or in the early years of primary school. The basic program of NDS is based on simple exercises that often imitate movements triggered by primary reflexes, giving the brain a second chance to gradually learn how to properly control the functioning of the body. Among the most important principles of NDS is that we first start developing balance in children and combine inhibition of primary reflexes with improved sensory integration, and only later add more skills. Another important principle is that NDS utilizes the natural craniocaudal direction of development, which means the direction from head to toe. Without proper head control, other movement stereotypes will not develop properly. A great advantage of NDS is that it is applicable to whole classes, not just children with obvious learning problems. This means that we do not have to separate "unsuccessful" children from "normal" ones, but all children exercise together. It can also help children who may handle schoolwork without significant difficulties (e.g., due to their above-average intelligence) but still have problems with concentration or coordination of movements (including eye movements). These children often do not visit educational-psychological counseling and their problems are therefore not diagnosed. For children who do not have any primary reflexes, the exercises will not harm them and they will at least have a nice workout. Many children today are less interested in physical activity and are more interested in the latest technological inventions. Many of them already have faulty posture in the first grade, and long periods of sitting in school and then at home on the couch or computer will not improve their condition. All exercises for inhibiting primary reflexes also strengthen the inner core. The inner core (deep muscels) is composed of muscles that provide stability (firmness) to the spine during all our movements. Their involvement in spinal stabilization is automatic and involuntary. inner core plays an important role in protecting the spine from external forces, loads, and pressures on the spine structures. Its disorders are an important factor in the development of vertebral problems. Inclusive education, also known as mainstream education, is based on the belief that all students have the right to be educated in groups with their peers in schools in their local communities. NDS represents a specific opportunity to improve the inclusion of students with special educational needs. Article Author : PhDr. Marja Volemanová, PhD. VOLEMANOVÁ, M. (2017) Neuro-vývojová stimulace ve školní praxi jako nástroj k inkluzi. Integrace a inkluze ve školní praxi, ročník IV, číslo 9, květen 2017. ISSN 2336-1212

The function of primary reflexes can be imagined as follows: Nature has provided us with various motor programmes stored in the brain. However, when a baby is born, the connections in the brain are not yet fully developed, so these programmes cannot be used immediately. To bridge this phase, nature created primary reflexes. These reflexes help to create “pathways” in the brain, laying the groundwork for future motor skills. Primary reflexes “houses” in the brainstem, the lower part of the brain, which also controls reflexes for breathing, heart function, and other vital processes. In contrast, motor programmes are stored in the higher regions of the brain. Primary reflexes begin to develop during pregnancy and play a crucial role in birth—helping the baby enter the world without complications. After birth, they allow the baby to respond to the environment and simultaneously stimulate the brain to form neural connections—essentially "highways" leading to motor programmes. What Happens When Primary Reflexes Can’t Fulfil Their Role? Primary reflexes need adequate stimulation and opportunities to “build highways.” If a child lacks sufficient movement opportunities—perhaps due to excessive time in car seats, on soft cushions, or other passive positions—the reflexes may not complete the “highway” construction in time. The child continues to grow and desires to explore the world, so they begin search for alternative “back roads.” While these back roads can also support basic movements like rolling, crawling, or walking, they are slower, less efficient, and less comfortable than highways. As a result, less efficient movement patterns may develop, even in athletes. Although they may excel in physical skills, their less efficient patterns become obstacles when striving for higher performance levels, increasing the risk of injury or causing them to hit their limits sooner. In children, we may observe difficulties with motor skills, changes in muscle tone depending on head movements, challenges with sitting still at school, or problems with concentration. Issues with writing and reading may also arise due to unsteady eye movements. We need to “build highways” that lead directly to correct motor programmes. Once these "highways" are constructed, they become direct and efficient routes. There is no longer a need to rely on winding "back roads". Using these direct paths naturally leads to the inhibition of primary reflexes, as they are no longer needed. The exception to this occurs in cases of severe trauma (injury, stress, or psychological trauma), which can temporarily “awaken” primary reflexes because the "highways" need repairs. In cases of permanent brain damage (e.g., due to an brain injury or degenerative brain disease), primary reflexes may reappear because the highways become unusable. Under normal circumstances, however, well-built "highways" remain functional, eliminating the need to revert to less efficient paths. What to Do If Primary Reflexes Persist? If primary reflexes persist, they first need to be “strengthened” and provided with more “resources” (effort) to restart "highway construction". When "back roads" have been used for a long time, it’s not easy to motivate the system to invest in "highways". As we begin to build "highways", there may initially be “traffic restrictions” and “jams.” This is why, during the initial stages of inhibiting primary reflexes, the condition may temporarily worsen. However, once the "highway" is completed, improvement follows, and the child will no longer feel the need to revert to old paths. Unlike real highways, neural pathways don’t wear out with use—instead, they strengthen and improve. They can be compared to a trail in grass: if used frequently, it remains visible and functional, but if neglected, it gradually overgrows and disappears. Using Neuro-Developmental Stimulation (NDS) , we can stimulate primary reflexes to build "highways", which naturally inhibits them. This opens the way for children to access more efficient motor programmes and better manage everyday activities.

"Primary reflexes play a crucial role in aiding the baby during the birthing process and serve a vital function in the first few weeks of life. Therefore, immediately after birth, the child is examined for the presence of all primary reflexes. Poorly developed primary reflexes could potentially suggest inadequate brain development. The brain of a newborn weighs around 400 grams and is still immature, but it contains almost all the nerve cells required for the rest of their life. However, these cells are not yet adequately connected to each other. As a result, the baby initially relies on active primary reflexes that are located in the lower levels of the brain, which are already fully developed. The infant is bombarded with an overwhelming amount of stimuli that their brain cannot yet process well, and primary reflexes aid in responding adequately to these stimuli. Motor development in the child is also linked to the activity of primary reflexes. These reflexes stimulate the creation of connections in the brain, differentiation of nerve cells, and especially connections to higher brain centers, which subsequently take over overall control of the body. The movements produced by primary reflexes help to create a dense neural network that allows for the connection of different areas of the brain, which is crucial for future learning processes, communication skills, emotional and affective relationships, and motivation. As the higher brain centers develop, primary reflexes gradually interfere and must be inhibited for the brain to develop in a neurologically correct manner. Motor development also stalls if primary reflexes persist longer than usual. Children may struggle to start crawling or climbing or may turn in the wrong direction (e.g., with a significant tilt of the head). Therefore, primary reflexes gradually weaken. The development of posture and movement functions essentially mirrors brain development. Improvement in movement control is an indicator of strengthened connections between the brain and body and within the brain itself.