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Mgr. Marja Volemanová, Dis., marja.volemanova@pedf.cuni.cz doc. PhDr. Lea Květoňová, Ph.D., lea.kvetonova@ pedf.cuni.cz Charles University, Faculty of Education, Department of Special Education, Magdalény Rettigové 4, 116 39 Praha 1. Annotation This study set out to explore the links between specific language impairment (SLI), motor development and literacy acquisition in children. We focus on motor deficits which are mostly common in children with SLI, further we look if SLI can by caused by persisting primary reflexes or if they can make the symptoms of SLI worse. After that we try to find out, if it is possible to predict SLI, already at small kids by an early development assessment and if a specific movement intervention program would be useful to help children with SLI. A significant relationship between motor impairment and speech/language impairments in children was found. Children with developmental speech/language impairments are at higher risk for reading disability than typical peers with no history of speech/language impairment (Schuele, 2004). However, we still not fully understand the causes and biological basis of SLI. Till now, there is no early developmental assessment available, which comprehensively tests both motor development and language skills. Specific movement intervention programs for children with SLI and other developmental challenges are already developed, but we miss fundamental research which shows success rate for children with SLI. There are available several case studies on this topic. Further research shall be conducted to identify children who may need special intervention even before they get the SLI diagnosis, and to search for approaches, which can help to mitigate the impairment. Keywords Specific language impairment (SLI); motor development; literacy acquisition; Neuro-vývojová terapie; persisting primary reflexes. Discussion Schuele (2004) states, that children with oral language impairment, whether or not they have concomitant speech impairment, are at great risk for reading disabilities. The reason is quite simple, if the child has difficulties with coding events in spoken language structures and in understanding spoken language, the same difficulties will appear in writing and reading. We however still not fully understand the causes and biological basis of SLI. As Hill (2001) said: „The only guaranteed conclusion that one can, currently, draw is that the deficits of children with SLI are not specific to language”. A significant relationship between motor impairment and speech/language impairments in children was found and so further research must be done to identify children who may need special intervention in time, and to search for approaches, which can help to mitigate the impairment. Within the context of reading disabilities, children with a history of SLI should be viewed as a subgroup from children with reading disabilities but no history of speech/language impairment, while intervention needs of children with SLI are potentially different from children with reading difficulties alone. Full text at http://pages.pedf.cuni.cz/gramotnost/3-2017/. VOLEMANOVÁ, M.; KVĚTOŇOVÁ, L. (2017) Links between SLI, Motor Development and Literacy Acquisition in Children. Gramotnost, pregramotnost a vzdělávání , ročník 1, číslo 3, 2017. Available at http://pages.pedf.cuni.cz/gramotnost/3-2017/.

Annotation The development of motor skills, primary reflexes, and speech are interconnected. But how exactly? I work daily with children who have persistent primary reflexes. These children often experience difficulties at school (learning disabilities, attention deficits), motor issues (delays in gross motor skills, fine motor skills, graphomotor skills, and coordination), autistic-like symptoms, or speech development problems — the main focus of this article. I am committed to collaborating with speech therapists to provide the most comprehensive approach and care for children with these challenges. The goal of this article is to clearly and concisely explain the links between primary reflexes and the development of motor skills and speech. In the final section, I briefly mention intervention options that (clinical) speech therapists can incorporate into their speech therapy practice. Keywords Psychomotor development, speech development, gross motor skills, fine motor skills, primary reflexes, neuro-developmental therapy, neuro-developmental stimulation Conclusion From the above, it follows that the development of gross and fine motor skills is fundamental for the ability to communicate through speech. According to research conducted by Bilbilaj in 2017, 71.4% of children with delayed speech development also had persistent palmar reflex, TLR (tonic labyrinthine reflex), and sucking and rooting reflexes (Bilbilaj, 2017). It is therefore essential that even (clinical) speech therapists can identify persistent primary reflexes and have basic intervention skills to inhibit these reflexes. Various methods are used worldwide to inhibit primary reflexes. The most well-known include Rhythmic RTM Training, the INPP Method, and the MNRI Method. In the Czech Republic, the most widely used approaches are Neuro-Developmental Stimulation (NVS) and Neuro-Developmental Therapy (NVT) (not to be confused with the term "neurodevelopmental therapy," which sometimes refers to a group of therapies like the Bobath approach or Handle therapy). Neuro-Developmental Therapy (NVT) is a highly individualized therapy that combines the inhibition of primary reflexes with physiotherapy, special education, and sensory integration. NVT is used with children from around 3-4 years of age, but it is also effective in adults. The treatment is based on simple exercises, which often mimic movements triggered by primary reflexes to stimulate proper neural connections in the brain, allowing it to naturally inhibit these reflexes. The activity of persistent primary reflexes is thus naturally suppressed through exercise, thereby eliminating the related problems. Neuro-Developmental Stimulation (NVS) is a program derived from Neuro-Developmental Therapy. NVS is primarily designed for (special needs) teachers, (clinical) speech therapists, and other professionals working with children with learning, behavioral, and communication disorders. The NVS program is adapted to the fact that these professionals may not have education in anatomy or kinesiology. The tests and exercises are structured in such a way that they can be effectively used with larger groups of children. I believe that Neuro-Developmental Therapy and Neuro-Developmental Stimulation can be successfully used, among other things, in the comprehensive rehabilitation of speech disorders. Article Author : PhDr. Marja Volemanová, PhD. The full article is available at: https://casopis.aklcr.cz/magno/lkl/2020/mn1.phpand at https://www.prolekare.cz/casopisy/listy-klinicke-logopedie/2020-1-36/primarni-reflexy-a-jejich-vliv-na-motoriku-a-rec-125607 Reference :VOLEMANOVÁ, M. Primary Reflexes and Their Impact on Motor Skills and Speech. Listy klinické logopedie , 1/2020. ISSN 2570-6179. Available at: https://casopis.aklcr.cz/magno/lkl/2020/mn1.php

Abstract The aim of the dissertation entitled Neuro-Developmental Stimulation in special education teachers work is to explain a lesser-known phenomenon (persistent primary reflexes and sensory-sensitive integration disorders in children) to determine the prevalence of persistent primary reflexes in pupils from 5 to 8 years and verify effectiveness of the method Neuro-Developmental Stimulation as a possible intervention program for special educators. The theoretical basis is current knowledge about psychomotorics, primary reflexes, sensory perception and sensory-sensitive integration. The main part of the work is research into the prevalence of persistent primary reflexes. The research group consists 345 pupils from 5 to 8 years of age attending regular kindergartens and primary schools and 26 pupils aged 8 to 11 years attending a primary school established pursuant to Section 16, Paragraph 9 of the Czech Education law. Intervention by the Neuro-Developmental Stimulation method is verified in a case study. The next part of the research maps the experience of special pedagogue teachers and speech therapists with the method Neuro-Developmental Stimulation as an intervention program. The research has a quantitative approach. For data collection, questionnaires were distributed among all special pedagogues and speech therapists who completed Neuro-Developmental Stimulation courses between January 2014 and June 2019. The research shows that 12.8 % of pupils aged 5 to 8 have at least one primary reflex completely (to grade 4) or at least two reflexes to grade 3. Here we can expect problems with education. Furthermore, research shows that if the primary reflex persists to a large extent, it will not disappear with age. Special intervention is needed. It is clear from the case study that persistent primary reflexes and his associated symptoms can be eliminated or alleviated by using the Neuro-Developmental Stimulation method. Neuro-Developmental Stimulation is perceived very positively by graduates of Neuro-Developmental Stimulation courses as another possible method of working with children with learning or behavioural disorders. Respondents appreciate that Neuro-Developmental Stimulation affects the child comprehensively, throughout its development. According to the questionnaire, the respondents were able to use the Neuro-Developmental Stimulation application mainly to improve gross motor skills and cooperation. Other areas with the most frequent visible improvements were coordination of movements, communication, and focus. It can therefore be stated that Neuro-Developmental Stimulation can be successfully included among special pedagogical methods. Key words:  Neuro-developmental stimulation; primary reflexes; psychomotorics; sensor-sensitive integration; sensory perception Discussion and recommendations for special education theory and practice Diagnosis in special education involves a comprehensive, multidimensional process that includes medical, psychological, social, and special education assessment. It is a complex cognitive process essential for determining subsequent support and intervention. Since human development is a dynamic process, a diagnosis should not be regarded as something fixed or unchanging over time (Přinosilová, 2007). The goal of the diagnostic process is to identify specific causes and barriers that the pupil has not yet been able to overcome and, based on this, to propose specific intervention measures (Bartoňová & Vítková, 2016). In practice, the processes of diagnosis and re-education often overlap, as special support is provided based on the diagnosis, and during this process, not only are impaired functions re-educated, but diagnostic knowledge is also refined (Přinosilová, 2007). When diagnosing many of the main areas of special education diagnosis (gross and fine motor skills, graphomotor skills, drawing, laterality, social development, communication skills, etc.), it is important to focus on key factors such as primary reflexes and sensory-sensitive integration. Persistent primary reflexes and sensory-sensitive integration disorders can cause symptoms related to learning disabilities, behavioral disorders, communication problems, and difficulties with concentration. Specific learning disabilities (SLD) affect a large percentage of the child population. According to Bartoňová (2018), 3–4% of school-age children and youth suffer from learning disabilities. The prevalence of SLD is significantly higher in boys, which is linked to functional differences in the brains of men and women. A particularly interesting topic for further research could be an attempt to investigate and document the number of children with diagnosed SLD who are also diagnosed with persistent primary reflexes and/or sensory-sensitive integration disorders. Objective of the dissertation The aim of this dissertation was to explain a relatively unknown phenomenon (persistent primary reflexes and sensory-sensitive integration disorders in children) and to determine the prevalence of persistent primary reflexes in pupils aged 5 to 8 attending mainstream kindergartens and primary schools. A secondary objective was to verify the effectiveness of a potential intervention approach for special education teachers (Neuro-developmental Stimulation – NDS). Importance of early intervention When considering the possible symptoms of individual persistent primary reflexes, it becomes clear that they can significantly affect a child's development and academic performance. Therefore, early detection and intervention aimed at inhibiting these reflexes are essential. Ideally, intervention using NDS should begin before the child enters primary school. Connection between primary reflexes and sensory-sensitive integration Primary reflexes and sensory-sensitive integration are two closely related areas that influence different parts of the brain. By combining activities aimed at inhibiting primary reflexes with those aimed at improving sensory-sensitive integration, the intervention becomes more effective. Differential diagnostics using tests for primary reflexes and sensory integration Tests for persistent primary reflexes and sensory-sensitive integration can serve as differential diagnostics. It is essential to note that primary reflexes often persist in children with atypical development. Therefore, it is highly likely that children with SLD, attention disorders, autism spectrum disorders (ASD), as well as those with various physical, intellectual, or sensory disabilities, will also have persistent primary reflexes. Persistent primary reflexes can further exacerbate their difficulties, but they may not necessarily be the root cause. In practice, there is a group of children whose diagnoses have not been correctly established. These are most often children diagnosed with SLD, attention disorders, or autism spectrum disorders. Sometimes, the symptoms caused by persistent primary reflexes or sensory-sensitive integration disorders are very similar to the aforementioned diagnoses. However, the intervention approach should be different. If persistent primary reflexes are detected, efforts should first be made to inhibit these reflexes. Only then is it possible to accurately diagnose SLD or ASD. Inhibiting primary reflexes is therefore one of the possible methods of intervention. Research on the prevalence of persistent primary reflexes This dissertation presents quantitative research on the prevalence of persistent primary reflexes in preschool and early school-age children. The quantitative study, which included a research sample of 345 pupils aged 5 to 8, reveals that 12.8% of pupils have significantly persistent primary reflexes, meaning at least one reflex at level 4 or at least two reflexes at level 3. For these pupils, it can be assumed that these reflexes will negatively impact their education. Another 42.8% of pupils had more than two persistent reflexes or at least one reflex at level 2. It is likely that these pupils will face mild difficulties, for example, with (grapho)motor skills, concentration, or learning. However, these difficulties may not be severe enough to be recognized, and these pupils may not be referred for diagnosis. As a result, they may not receive the intervention they need, even though their school performance could be improved. Preventive intervention in kindergartens Given these findings, it is worth considering offering Neuro-developmental Stimulation as a preventive program in kindergartens. This idea was also supported by many graduates of the Neuro-developmental Stimulation courses (see appendix). Structure of the NDS program Neuro-developmental Stimulation provides a comprehensive methodology for working with children. It can be used by special education teachers as part of both complex diagnostics and intervention. The method combines activities for inhibiting primary reflexes with activities for improving sensory-sensitive integration. The entire program lasts 30 weeks, but it can be extended as needed. The specific method of working with children was described in detail in a case study. Based on the research, it can be concluded that NDS can significantly help prepare children for school. Survey of NDS course graduates As part of the second research study, questionnaires were distributed among graduates of the Neuro-developmental Stimulation courses. The quantitative approach yielded a wealth of useful information. A total of 137 graduates (participants of NDS I, NDS II, and sometimes supervision sessions) completed the questionnaire. Perception of NDS by graduates The questionnaire reveals that NDS is perceived very positively as an additional method for working with children with learning or behavioral disorders. Most respondents use NDS when working with preschool and early school-age children. They most often work with children individually or in small groups, either in counseling centers or in primary schools. Respondents appreciate that NDS has a comprehensive impact on the child's development as a whole. Parental involvement and support for other therapies Another important finding was that NDS requires the cooperation of parents with their child. Respondents also highlighted that NDS supports the child in such a way that other therapies (such as speech therapy) become more effective. Another advantage noted by respondents is that NDS does not require expensive materials (67% of respondents agreed with this statement). Training and practical feedback from NDS courses Most of the respondents learned about NDS from colleagues or acquaintances. They attended the course with the intention of incorporating NDS into their work. Over 87% of respondents stated that after completing the courses, they were able to recognize children with persistent primary reflexes. All respondents reported that their approach to children with persistent primary reflexes had changed. The courses were rated very positively — 68.6% rated them as excellent, and 31.4% rated them as very good. No respondents rated the courses as below average or poor. Respondents particularly appreciated the opportunity to try all activities and exercises themselves and the connection between theory and practice. They also valued the quality of the materials, the clarity of the theoretical explanations, and the availability of additional supervision. Some respondents noted that the volume of new information was too large. About one-fifth of the respondents said they would have liked a more detailed explanation of the child's psychomotor development. Challenges in using NDS The biggest challenge in working with NDS, according to respondents, is the lack of time. Some respondents suggested that NDS should be offered in kindergartens and primary schools or even included in the national curriculum (RVP, ŠVP). Recommendations for special education theory and practice The findings show that NDS has its place in the work of special education teachers. However, the results of the survey indicate that knowledge about physiological psychomotor development is currently insufficient among special education teachers and speech therapists. Therefore, it would be beneficial to include more information on the child's psychomotor development within the framework of special education studies. For special education teachers to work effectively with children with disabilities, they must first understand the principles of a child's physiological development. Interdisciplinary cooperation Another important conclusion from this dissertation is the importance of a comprehensive approach to working with children. Many respondents (97.8%) believe it would be beneficial to raise awareness of NDS among other fields, such as physiotherapy, occupational therapy, and psychology, to improve interdisciplinary cooperation. Conclusion The research objectives of the dissertation were met, and the research questions were answered. It can be concluded that NDS is a useful tool in the work of special education teachers. Early detection of difficulties related to persistent primary reflexes and sensory-sensitive integration creates space for effective support of the child's development. The full thesis can be found at   https://is.cuni.cz/webapps/zzp/detail/182844/ VOLEMANOVÁ, M.   Neuro-developmental stimulation in the work of a special education teacher  (dissertation). Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Education, Department of Special Education, 2020. Available at   https://is.cuni.cz/webapps/zzp/detail/182844/ Disclaimer:  The information provided in this article is specific to the Czech educational system and may not apply to other countries. Educational systems, policies, and practices vary widely around the world, so please consider this context when interpreting the content. Published: 9.12.2024

A child may need support due to school readiness issues (different living conditions and cultural backgrounds from which the child enters education), adverse health conditions, disabilities, exceptional giftedness, or learning disorders. Specific learning disabilities (SLD)  typically do not become apparent until a certain stage of a child's development, usually after entering the 1st grade of primary school. The child may begin to display problems with reading, writing, or math that seem inexplicable to those around them, even when the child has favorable learning conditions and sufficient cognitive abilities. However, modern research has shown that it is possible to identify "at-risk" children already in preschool and to provide targeted stimulation to address potential issues as early as possible. Support measures for pupils with special educational needs (SEN) According to Act No. 46/2019 Coll., which amends Act No. 561/2004 Coll. on preschool, primary, secondary, higher vocational, and other education, children, pupils, and students with special educational needs (SEN) are those who "need support measures to fulfill their educational potential or to exercise and enjoy their rights on an equal basis with others." Support measures are defined as necessary adjustments in education and educational services that reflect the health status, cultural background, or other living conditions of the child, pupil, or student. Children, pupils, and students with SEN have the right to receive these support measures free of charge from the school or educational institution. The traditional classification into groups (children with disabilities, children with health disadvantages, and exceptionally gifted children) is no longer used. Instead, support measures are now divided into five levels  according to the organizational, pedagogical, and financial demands required, regardless of the cause. The focus is primarily on the child's specific needs (School Act No. 561/2004 Coll., as amended). What are support measures? Support measures are a form of assistance provided to help the teacher educate pupils whose learning requires adjustments. They involve the use of special methods, approaches, educational tools, compensatory and rehabilitation aids, special textbooks, and didactic materials. They may also include the introduction of special education support courses, the provision of psychological and pedagogical services, the presence of two educational staff in the classroom, support from a teaching assistant, and the provision of individual support during lessons. Support measures are divided into five levels based on their scope and intensity. Levels of support measures Level I Proposed and provided directly by the school. For example, this may involve increased individualization in the teacher's approach to the pupil. If it is necessary for multiple teachers to coordinate the child's educational adjustments, it is advisable to create a Pedagogical Support Plan (PSP) . The plan briefly describes the pupil's challenges, the changes in work procedures, and how these changes will be reflected in teaching methods, the organization of the pupil's education, and the pupil's assessment. The description should be concise and serves as a record for teachers, showing how they are working with the pupil and with what level of success. If the adjustments fail to produce the expected changes within three months and the pupil's difficulties persist or worsen, the school refers the legal guardian or the pupil (if of age) to an educational counseling facility (Pedagogical-Psychological Counseling Center (PPP) or Special Education Center (SPC)). Levels II - V Proposed and implemented under the guidance of an educational counseling facility. After evaluating all relevant documentation (PSP, medical and clinical reports, and reports from other educational counseling facilities), the pupil undergoes an assessment to determine their special educational needs. Based on this assessment, the educational counseling facility issues a document for the school called the "Recommendation for the education of a pupil with special educational needs" , which contains the assessment conclusions and the recommended support measures. Types of support measures Support measures include: Modification of teaching methods and forms  (e.g., individualization, tailored materials, adapted assignments) Support from the school's counseling center Adjustments to the content of education  and, where necessary, modifications to the expected learning outcomes for certain pupils Changes to the organization of education  (e.g., adjustments to lesson schedules, use of break times, classroom setup, class size, and group learning) Creation of an individual education plan (IEP) Personnel support  for the teacher (e.g., a teaching assistant, additional educational staff, school psychologist, or school special education teacher) Support for the pupil  (e.g., a sign language interpreter, a scribe for deaf students, a mobility assistant, a personal assistant, or the presence of another support person) Intensive methodological support  from the educational counseling facility for up to six months, particularly in cases where the school is educating a pupil whose needs require close cooperation with experts from the counseling facility. Educational counseling facilities The structure and operation of educational counseling facilities are governed by Decree No. 72/2005 Coll. on the provision of counseling services in schools and educational counseling facilities , as well as its amendment No. 197/2016 Coll.  Educational counseling facilities provide counseling services through pedagogical and social workers. These facilities cooperate with other specialists to meet the educational needs of pupils. Types of educational counseling facilities 1. Pedagogical-Psychological Counseling Center (PPP) Provides pedagogical-psychological and special education counseling services, as well as support for the education and upbringing of pupils. Counseling services are provided both on-site at the center and through visits to schools and educational facilities. The PPP conducts psychological and special education assessments for pupils with SEN and exceptionally gifted pupils. Based on these assessments, the center issues a report and recommendations that include proposals for support measures for the pupil. The PPP also provides direct psychological and special education interventions for pupils and offers advisory, consultation, and methodological support to legal guardians. Through its prevention specialists , the PPP ensures the prevention of risky behavior, implements preventive measures, and coordinates school-based prevention specialists. 2. Special Education Center (SPC) Provides counseling services to support the education of pupils with mental, physical, visual, or hearing disabilities, speech impairments, multiple disabilities, or autism. Each SPC focuses on a specific type (or multiple types) of disadvantage or disability. For students attending schools established under Section 16, Paragraph 9 of the Education Act , counseling services are only provided within the scope of diagnostic care . The SPC provides direct psychological and special education interventions for pupils, but only when such services cannot be provided by the school or educational facility where the pupil is enrolled. SPC activities take place on-site at the center as well as through visits to schools, educational facilities, and, in some cases, the pupil's home or other care facilities. The importance of integration and inclusion With changes in society, efforts to integrate and include children and pupils with SEN into schools, educational facilities, and society have intensified. According to Bartoňová (2018), 3-4% of school-aged children and youth have learning disabilities . Furthermore, Bartoňová (2018) writes that approximately 4% of the child population requires special educational care . Emphasis is therefore placed on early diagnosis and the provision of re-education, support, and intervention to prevent potential negative impacts on students' future education and career paths. Sources BARTOŇOVÁ, Miroslava.  2018. Specific learning disabilities . Brno: Paido, 2018. ISBN: 978-80-7315-266-6. BARTOŇOVÁ, Miroslava; VÍTKOVÁ, Marie.  2016. Strategies for the education of pupils with special educational needs in an inclusive environment of primary schools . Brno: Paido, 2016. ISBN: 978-80-7315-255-0. INKLUZE . Inclusion in practice. [Online] National Pedagogical Institute of the Czech Republic. MICHALÍK, Jan; MONČEK, Jindřich; BASLEROVÁ, Pavlína.  2020. Levels of support measures . Palacký University Olomouc, 2020. Decree No. 27/2016 on education for pupils with special educational needs and gifted pupils . Decree No. 72/2005 Coll. on the provision of counseling services in schools and educational counseling facilities . Author of the article: PhDr. Marja Voleman, PhD. Published: 9.12.2024 Disclaimer:  The information provided in this article is specific to the Czech educational system and may not apply to other countries. Educational systems, policies, and practices vary widely around the world, so please consider this context when interpreting the content.

If you feel that your child is not developing as described in developmental milestone charts, keep in mind that every child is unique. Each child develops at their own pace. A premature baby  will not develop in the same way as a full-term baby. Initially, a premature baby needs all its energy to grow. Its organs are not yet fully functional, so its development is delayed compared to its full-term peers. For this reason, the concept of corrected age  is used for prematurely born children. Corrected age refers to the age the child would be if they were born at full term. For example, if your child was born a month early, you "don't count" that first month. What a full-term baby would learn by three months, your prematurely born baby will achieve by four months. This correction of age is typically used until the child is around 2 to 3 years old, by which time most preterm children have caught up with their peers. If you notice any deviation in your child's development , it is always better to consult a specialist as soon as possible . First, schedule an appointment with your pediatrician . Pediatrics as a field focuses on preventive care and the active identification of potential health issues. The pediatrician may refer you to a physiotherapist  or another specialist if needed. However, if the pediatrician says everything is fine but you still feel something is not right, do not hesitate to arrange a consultation with a physiotherapist specializing in psychomotor development . As a parent, you see your child every day and know them best. Trust your instincts. Pediatricians have an incredibly broad scope of knowledge — they must be familiar with psychomotor development, skin conditions, digestive issues, and a wide range of diseases. A physiotherapist specializing in psychomotor development  focuses on child development every day. If the physiotherapist also says that everything is fine, you can be at ease. Additionally, the physiotherapist can provide you with advice on how to lift, carry, or play with your child in ways that support their psychomotor development . If necessary, the physiotherapist may recommend specialized therapies  such as the Vojta method  or the Bobath concept  to support your child's development. Author: PhDr. Marja Voleman, PhD. Published 9.12.2024

Here, you will find suggestions for activities that stimulate a child's senses, self-awareness, and motor skills. The suggestions are divided according to the age milestones that children typically reach. However, feel free to explore activities from earlier stages as well. Select activities with a level of difficulty that is only slightly higher than the child's current abilities. If the activities are too difficult, certain stages of development may be skipped. The child may either resist the activity or comply without understanding, which could require significant correction later on. ​ You can think of it like math. Imagine being given a math problem that is far beyond your current abilities. You might give up immediately or follow a step-by-step guide without truly understanding why it works. If you then receive a different but equally difficult math problem, you won't know how to solve it. You might even develop your own incorrect method, which will later need to be unlearned. With babies, an example of this would be sitting them up too early . While the baby may be happy in a sitting position, their spine is not ready for it. Babies should learn to sit up on their own, passing through the "on all fours" phase before they can sit upright firmly and independently. ​ Suggestions for stimulating child development by trimester 1st trimester (0-3 months) 2nd trimester (4-6 months) 3rd trimester (7-9 months) 4th trimester (10-12 months) 1st trimester (0-3 months) Parents naturally react to their newborn's behavior. Their responses to the baby’s cues stimulate the child’s development in the first days and weeks of life. Talk, sing, and gently stroke your baby  as much as possible. One of the major tasks for a baby in the first three months is to transition from a curled-up, asymmetrical position  to a more open, balanced posture. By the age of 3 months, babies should be able to lie stably on their back  (without tilting to one side, even when changing a diaper) and on their stomach  (propping themselves up on their forearms) while maintaining an upright head position for several minutes. This is a challenging task for the baby, so they need plenty of opportunities to practice. Place the baby on their back and stomach on a firm surface (like the floor) so they can experiment with their body. Movement is a powerful learning tool, especially for babies. During these months, babies practice lifting their head  while lying on their stomach. If they are given frequent opportunities to lie on their stomach, they will gradually master the skill of finding the correct support points and center of gravity, enabling them to lift their head and chest off the ground by the end of the third month. This process strengthens the neck, back, and abdominal muscles, as well as the shoulder girdle and gluteal muscles. Upright head posture  forms the foundation for future movements. Car seats for infants (group 0) , which are used from birth up to 10–13 kg, should only be used in the car. Avoid leaving the baby in a car seat at home, while visiting friends, or in a stroller. If you have a mobile over the crib , position it above the baby's belly . If the mobile is above the baby's head, the child will have to tilt their head back, which is undesirable. Instead, the baby should learn to engage their abdominal muscles and raise their legs. Let your baby lie on their tummy without a diaper  as often as possible. Thick diapers lift the pelvis, which can prevent the baby from finding the right support points. By the third month, the baby’s center of gravity should naturally shift down toward the pubic bone . Place the baby on a changing table or a table where they can see your face (sit in front of them at eye level). This encourages them to lift their head and look at you. Activities Blowing on the baby While changing the baby's diaper, gently blow on different parts of their body (belly, bottom, soles of feet) and name the body parts as you blow on them. The baby may not understand the words, but they will enjoy listening to your voice. Chest-to-chest play Lie in a semi-reclined position with your back supported by a pillow. Place the baby on your chest. Gently rock side to side, encouraging the baby to maintain balance. ​ 2nd trimester (4-6 months) During this period, offer games that stimulate the baby's sense of balance , such as spinning, rocking, and swinging. These activities support the inhibition of certain primary reflexes , particularly the Moro reflex  and the Tonic Labyrinthine Reflex (TLR) . When lying on their back, babies begin to raise their hands to their eyes  to look at them. Offer tactile toys like teething rings with ridges or soft fabrics. Don't overwhelm the baby with too many toys — one or two just out of reach is enough to encourage the baby to stretch and reach for them. By the beginning of the fifth month , babies start to shift their weight  to one side while on their belly, freeing one hand to play. Encourage the baby to reach for a toy placed to one side. The mouth becomes an important sensory tool, so the baby will naturally want to put everything they hold into their mouth. This is completely normal and should not be discouraged. If your child does not like lying on their stomach, you can help them by gently lifting their chest while pressing their bottom down. Place toys or a hanging mobile above the baby's belly , not above their face. If toys are placed above their face, the baby will be encouraged to tilt their head backward, which is undesirable. Instead, try showing a visually interesting toy slightly to the side of the baby’s field of vision to motivate them to look at it. Slowly move the toy to the other side, encouraging the baby to turn their head and track it with their eyes. By the sixth month, when you show the baby a toy from the side, they will be motivated to turn onto their side . If you'd like to help the baby turn onto their side, bend one leg while keeping the other straight. Move the bent leg across the center of the baby's torso to the other side, and the rest of the torso will naturally follow. ​ Make or buy socks with rattles . Every time the baby moves their leg, they will hear the rattle. The baby will want to grab their foot and put it in their mouth. When the baby is lying on their back, give them a small gymnastics ball (known as an overball ) to play with. You will see the baby try to "catch" the ball with both their hands and feet, which strengthens the abdominal muscles . If the baby is (nearly) naked during this activity, their body awareness  will also improve. Activities Baby massage Baby massage is a gentle touch technique that gives the baby a feeling of warmth, security, and love. It also deepens the sense of mutual trust and understanding between mother and baby. Baby massage supports the overall development of the child. It can trigger significant positive physical and mental changes and improve the child's body awareness. Use aromatherapy oils and enjoy this special moment together. Activity with a gymnastics ball (overball) Place the baby on a large gymnastics ball (overball), either on their belly or back, and gently rock them back and forth . This activity stimulates the baby's sense of balance and body awareness, helping to develop motor skills. 3rd trimester, 7-9 months By 7 months , a baby can roll from their stomach to their back  and play with their raised feet. They can also play with two toys at the same time . ​ You can hold the baby by the waist and lift them high above your head , which they will definitely enjoy. If you have slippery floors, consider laying down a carpet or play mat  for a few months so the baby can practice crawling properly. If using a carpet isn't possible, remove the baby’s socks  so their feet don’t slip. At this stage, do not put the baby in rigid shoes . When crawling, the baby needs to push off with their big toe, which supports the development of the foot arch . Avoid passively seating  the baby before they can sit on their own. They will naturally learn to do this when their body is ready. ​ The baby spends less time on their back  — mostly just while sleeping. As soon as they are on their back, they immediately roll onto their stomach , from which they begin to crawl . From this position, they can shift into a "on all fours" position  (rocking back and forth) and gradually start to crawl on all fours . Initially, the baby's crawling movements have a wide base , but as their skills improve, this base becomes narrower . The baby also begins to sit independently  through a side-sit position . With the help of a support (like a playpen), they can get into an upright kneeling position  and hold themselves in a standing position  by holding onto a support (like a playpen bar). Tips for supporting your baby’s development Place toys slightly out of reach  so the baby is motivated to crawl to them. Get down on the floor with the baby . Babies are more active and happier when their caregiver is on the ground with them. Encourage the baby to lift their arms, head, and legs  upward while lying on their stomach (a movement called pivoting ). You can also lift the baby by holding their waist or belly  and raise them high above your head. Babies love this! ​ Activities Activity: Play with baby on your legs Lie on your back, bend your knees, and bring them toward your belly. Place the baby on your shins. Rock the baby  by moving your shins up and down or by shifting from lying down to sitting up and back again. This exercise strengthens your thigh muscles and abdominal muscles  while giving your baby a fun and exciting experience. Activity: Practice turning with your baby Lay the baby on their back . Stretch out one leg  (the leg on the side you want the baby to turn toward). Bend the opposite leg  by holding it just under the knee. Move the bent leg across the baby’s torso  to the opposite side, encouraging the torso to follow. This technique allows the baby to experience the movement of rolling , which strengthens their muscles and develops their coordination. ​ 4th trimester, 10-12 months From the 10th month , the pace of a baby’s development slows slightly. The body begins to physically and mentally prepare  for the baby's first steps and independent walking. ​ Exploration and safety Babies at this stage begin to explore their surroundings  and move quickly. It's essential to baby-proof your home  to protect them from dangerous areas, such as electrical outlets, sharp furniture corners, and stairs. To understand how your baby sees the world, try crawling on all fours — you’ll quickly notice which items should be hidden away or locked in cabinets. ​ Encourage exploration Encourage the child to explore and experiment . You can show them how to place their knees or where to grip as they climb. Simply yelling from a distance, "Be careful!" or "Don't go there!" won't help the baby develop critical motor and problem-solving skills. Instead, actively support exploration  while ensuring their safety. ​ The importance of crawling Continue to encourage crawling , as it provides essential training for: Strengthening the core muscles  (deep trunk muscles) Coordination of movement Collaboration between brain hemispheres Hand-eye coordination Allowing the child to crawl properly can prevent potential problems in school-age learning and coordination . ​ Do not teach walking by holding their hands Avoid encouraging walking by holding the baby's hands above their head. This can: Hinder the child’s independence  and initiative to learn on their own. Disrupt balance  and promote an undesirable arched lower back . Encourage toe-walking , as the child may rely on their toes instead of their entire foot. Cause back pain  for parents who are bent over holding the baby’s hands. Some children start walking before their first birthday , but it is perfectly normal for a child to walk as late as 18 months . Do not use baby walkers , as they hinder natural development. There is no rush — your child will learn to walk in due time , especially if they spend time crawling and exploring. ​ Consistency and boundaries At this age, it's important to be consistent with rules and boundaries . If you say "No" or "You can't" , ensure it always means "No." Your baby will quickly learn to understand and respect boundaries. Inconsistent rules will confuse them, especially if one day "No" means "Stop" and the next day it means "Well, okay, just this once." ​ Toys that support motor development Look for toys that promote motor skills and sensory development, such as: Building blocks  and stacking towers Puzzles Interactive books  with textures and flaps For the garden, consider a sandbox , swing , or a small truck or push toy . For household play, consider a child-sized broom, dustpan, toy vacuum , or even a mini play kitchen . Playtime ideas Tag, hide-and-seek, and peekaboo : Simple movement games like these provide plenty of physical activity and fun. Object play : Encourage the child to hand you objects, and as they do, name the object aloud. Movement rhymes : Sing songs with accompanying movements, like "This Little Piggy" or "Pat-a-Cake." Stacking towers : Show the child how to build a tower out of blocks. Treasure boxes : Offer a box filled with random objects that the child can pull out, explore, and "tidy up" by putting them back. Ring-stacking games : Kids at this age love to stack and unstack rings on a pole. Activities Activity: Balance on your lap Sit the child on your lap , with their back leaning against you. Hold the baby by the hips . Gently rock them side to side , encouraging the child to maintain balance. You can also try this activity by placing the baby on a cylinder-shaped gymnastics ball  (like a foam roller or long gym ball). Make sure the baby can plant their feet flat on the ground — not just on their toes — to avoid encouraging toe-walking. ​ Activity: Balance on your legs Sit on the ground with your legs extended in front of you . Place the child standing on your thighs , and hold them by their hips . Gently shift your legs  by alternating which leg is slightly raised, encouraging the baby to maintain balance. You can also rock their hips gently  from side to side. This activity promotes balance, strengthens the baby’s core, and enhances postural control. Author of the article:  PhDr. Marja Voleman, PhD. Published: 9.12.2024 Main sources: Volemanová, Marja.   Primary reflexes: An overlooked factor in learning and behavior problems in children.  2nd expanded edition. Statenice: INVTS, 2019. ISBN 978-80-907369-0-0. Kleplová, Věra; Pilná, Dobromila.   Našemu sluníčku.  Prague: Anag, 2007. ISBN 978-80-7263-357-9.

The basic need of toddlers is the opportunity for sufficient movement . The reason is simple: movement provides essential impulses to their still-developing brain. German journalist Doro Kammerer , author of the book The First Three Years of a Child's Life , emphasizes: " Motor experiences form the essential foundation for the development of a toddler's intelligence. Age-appropriate movement skills are at the heart of a child's self-confidence and social recognition. Moreover, good motor skills are a kind of life insurance against the various dangers of everyday life. " ​ Playtime and safety Toddlers love to play . They may encourage you to play more energetic games  by laughing and squealing with excitement. However, be mindful of how intense these games become. Lifting the child high into the air, rough shaking, strong vibrations, or sharp head tilting backward  are not safe , especially for children with delayed motor development or hypotonia  (low muscle tone). Pay attention to the child's fragile joints  from the wrist to the shoulder. If these joints are suddenly overloaded by the child's entire body weight — for example, if you hold the child by one arm and spin them around or lift them by one arm — it can lead to dislocation or ligament tears. Always hold the child under the arms (in the armpit area)  to avoid unnecessary strain on the joints. ​ Exploration and routine Toddlers are naturally curious little beings , but try not to overstimulate them . They enjoy being in a familiar environment  where they feel safe and have a consistent routine. Their home becomes a secure haven  where they can retreat when the outside world becomes overwhelming. It is not necessary to create a full-day entertainment program . Instead, plan some time for outdoor walks , visits to playgrounds, forests, playdates with friends, or trips to see grandparents. But also allow for simple home playtime  with parents, as these moments of shared play have a significant impact on a child’s development. ​ Between the first and second year, children enjoy playing with water, mud, and sand . They like to put objects inside one another  — such as blocks or boxes. They are also drawn to toys that make sounds . As they develop their walking skills, they become interested in toys that can be pulled on a string . Hide-and-seek games  — whether it's the parent, the child, or a toy that hides — are beloved by children because of the suspense, mystery, and the joy of discovery  when something is found. They are drawn to climbing frames , where they can climb, slide, and swing . Even chase games  can be played with a toddler or even with a bored teenager . However, toddlers still lack the ability to stop quickly  or judge distances  accurately. Therefore, it’s important to ensure they don’t bump into obstacles  while playing.​ Support for toddler development: 1-2 years 2-3 years 1-2 years At the beginning of this period, the child may still be crawling  or just starting to walk . Even if they are already walking, crawling remains an excellent activity  for developing body awareness , strengthening deep core muscles , improving movement coordination , enhancing the cooperation of brain hemispheres , and hand-eye coordination . Language and cognitive development Name everything you do and everything the child points to. Talk often, sing songs, and recite nursery rhymes . Looking at picture books  (leporello books) with mom is a favorite activity for relaxation. Hide-and-seek games  are also popular, where either people or objects can be hidden. Toddlers enjoy building hideouts or playhouses . Simply drape a blanket over a chair or table , and you have a cozy house — a safe place for quiet play. Motor skills development Ball activities  are always fun. You can try to knock down empty PET bottles  with a soft ball or sit on the floor opposite each other  and roll the ball back and forth. Toddlers also enjoy playing on a large gymnastics ball . For fine motor skills , use various puzzles , toys that can be inserted into boxes , and large beads for threading . Try activities like: Passing objects  from one person to another, Stacking blocks , Simple puzzles , Threading toilet paper rolls onto a jump rope , or Putting objects into a box and taking them out again . Activities Activity: Obstacle course Create a playful obstacle course  from household items like pillows, small steps, stools, tunnels, and rocking toys  to support balance and coordination. Kids can crawl under tables , climb over obstacles , or walk along narrow paths . Even the legs of a parent lying on the ground  can become part of the course. This activity is best done barefoot  to support foot development and sensory stimulation. Activity: Sidewalk chalk drawing Let your child draw on the ground with chalk . This activity is most enjoyable outdoors  for easier cleanup, but you can also use a large chalkboard at home. Drawing with chalk develops creativity , fine motor skills , and hand-eye coordination . ​ ​ 2 -3 years Gross motor skills Toddlers become increasingly physically skilled . They start riding a push bike (balance bike) , walk backward , and can even balance on one foot for a short time . Try playing games like: Standing like a stork  (balancing on one leg), Jumping like a frog , Walking on tiptoes , or "Picking apples from a tree"  (reaching high with extended arms). You can also practice upright walking  by placing a small bag of rice or a stuffed animal  on the child's head. Over time, you can increase the challenge by having them walk over small obstacles . On walks, encourage your child to: Walk on curbs  or narrow edges, Walk along benches , Follow a drawn or marked winding path , or Walk backward . If you have a little football or basketball player , try kicking or tossing a ball  with them. Obstacle courses  remain a favorite activity, and they are also great for motor development! 😊 ​ Fine motor skills Fine motor skills improve at this age, so you can start with activities like: Threading large beads  or buttons on shoelaces , Sticking paper , Drawing on large sheets of paper , and Finger painting  (which toddlers love!). Finger painting on the body is a unique sensory experience, but make sure to use safe, child-friendly paints . To support the development of the rotational movement of the wrist , try activities like: Playing with nesting dolls (matryoshka) or stackable animal toys , Twisting bottle caps  on and off, or Pressing buttons on sound-producing toys . Encourage your child to sort toys  by color, type, size, or material. While sorting, name the colors  and explain what you're doing (for example, "We’ll put the cars here and the soft plush toys over there"). Self-awareness and sensory play Self-awareness games  are especially suitable at this age. One classic game is a good tickle session ! Other fun activities include games for hands and feet , such as: "Pat-a-cake" , "The little mouse cooked porridge" , "Climbing on the iron" , "Forge, forge, little blacksmith" , and "When I grow up" . For older toddlers, you can play "Guess the drawing" . Gently "draw" simple shapes or images on your child's back with your finger, and have them guess what it is. To develop their sense of hearing , put different materials (like peas, sugar, coins, paper, or water ) into small plastic containers . Shake them and ask the child to guess what's inside by the sound. Musical toys  help children recognize tones, pitch, and rhythm . You can: March or jump to the rhythm  of music, Let your child tap out a rhythm  on a drum (or even a pot lid), Use bells, rattles, or clapping  to keep the beat. Imaginative and role-play games Thematic role-play games  are fantastic at this age! Toddlers love playing: Mom and dad  (caring for dolls or plush toys), Cooking  (pretending to cook in a toy kitchen), Shopkeeper or customer  (playing store), Doctor or nurse  (pretending to treat stuffed animals or family members), School , or Restaurant . ​ Activities Activity: Mirror play In this game, the child observes and copies your movements, facial expressions, and gestures , just like a reflection in a mirror. This improves their self-awareness, motor skills, and observation skills . Activity: "Bicycle race" Lie on the ground on your back with your child lying down opposite you so your feet touch. Move your legs in a pedaling motion , as if riding a bike. Speed up as if you're "going downhill" and slow down as if you're "climbing a big hill." Activity: Ball rolling with a scarf Take a large scarf . You and your child each hold two corners. Place a ball on the scarf and roll it back and forth between you. Try not to let the ball fall off ! This activity supports coordination, teamwork, and concentration . Author of the article:  PhDr. Marja Voleman, PhD. Published: 9.12.2024 Main sources: Kleplová, Věra; Pilná, Dobromila (2006).   Našemu sluníčku, buď fit od narození po školu.  Olomouc: Anag, 2006. ISBN 80-7263-357-0 Lazzari, Simona (2013).   Vývoj dítěte v 1.-3. roce.  Praha: Grada, 2013. ISBN 978-80-3734-8

Primary reflexes should already be inhibited to allow the child to learn to walk, run, jump, as well as hold a spoon, build a tower from blocks, and master other more complex motor skills. Persistent primary reflexes can affect the child's ability to process sensory information. As a result, the child may be more sensitive to sounds (for example, being afraid of barking dogs, the sound of a vacuum cleaner, or a blender) or touch. Such children may also have difficulty falling asleep or may wake up frequently during the night. If you suspect that your child still has persistent primary reflexes, first consult a good physiotherapist. You can also support motor development through sensorimotor exercises. If that is not enough, consider visiting a specialist in Neuro-Developmental Stimulation around the age of 3 to 4 years. PhDr. Marja Voleman, PhD. Published: 9.12.2024

The preschool age is considered to be the period between three and six years. Take a look at how children's development progresses during this period: 3-4 years 4-5 years 5-6 years ​ 3-4 years Motor development A three-year-old child moves almost like an adult. They can walk, run on flat and uneven terrain, and rarely fall. They walk up and down stairs, alternating their feet when going up. Over time, their motor skills continue to improve. The child starts to hop on one foot, jump with both feet over a line, and jump over low obstacles (about 5 cm high). They can also catch a ball with both hands at the level of their tummy. Children at this age also enjoy riding balance bikes (bikes without pedals). By the age of four, children are able to go to the toilet on their own, pull down and pull up their underwear and pants, and wash and dry their hands. They can also brush their teeth with minimal help. ​ Fine motor skills A three-year-old child controls hand movements well enough to copy lines in different directions. They can imitate vertical, horizontal, and circular lines and gradually learn to draw a cross. If a three-year-old draws something, it is usually a random scribble. Based on what the scribble reminds them of, they will name it (even if it doesn’t actually resemble the intended object). They may also draw their first "tadpole figures" (basic human figures with only a head and limbs). Children of this age can manipulate small objects, such as stringing beads. ​ Speech development Speech significantly develops during the preschool years. A three-year-old child may still replace certain sounds with others (for example, saying "l" instead of "r") or pronounce them imprecisely. By this age, they can correctly identify basic colors. Up until the age of four, grammatical errors (called physiological dysgrammatisms) are considered normal. However, if such errors persist significantly after this period, they may indicate a delay in speech or even intellectual development. The sentences of two-year-olds are usually three-word phrases. In the preschool years, the length and complexity of sentences increase. By the end of the third year, children start forming complex sentences with a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Their interest in spoken language grows, and they often ask "Why?" and "When?". They also begin to understand broader categories and opposites. Three- and four-year-old children are able to listen to short stories, even in small groups of children. By the age of three, children typically know a few nursery rhymes, and their repertoire grows as they get older. At this stage, children talk a lot and love to chat, even if they are often their only audience. ​ Knowledge of the world The development of speech allows for an increase in the child's understanding of themselves and the world around them. By the age of three, children usually know their own name and can state their gender when asked. Their knowledge of objects and people in the world grows rapidly. For this reason, children enjoy pretend play, taking on the roles of princesses, police officers, knights, doctors, teachers, shopkeepers, and so on. It is not until the age of three that a child is able to follow instructions given verbally. At first, they repeat the instructions aloud, but later (around four or five years old), they can follow instructions using "internal speech" without saying their intentions out loud. At around two years of age, it is normal for two children in the same room to glance at each other but play separately. However, in the preschool years, there is a significant shift toward cooperative play. Children begin to play together on shared projects and even share materials with each other. Between the ages of three and four, competitiveness also emerges among children. In an effort to build a bigger or better tower than their playmate, children may take materials from others, often ignoring the other child’s feelings. On the other hand, with proper guidance, children's empathy for others grows significantly during this period. They begin to better understand others' emotions, comfort crying children, and try to help them in various ways. 4-5 years Motor development The child becomes more skilled in movement and enjoys physical activity. They can jump on one leg (and alternate between legs), walk along a line or balance beam, and ride a bicycle. They can stand on their tiptoes with their eyes open. They can catch smaller balls and begin developing the foundation for more challenging motor skills, such as ice skating, walking on stilts, and similar activities. Their growing dexterity is reflected in their increasing independence. They can eat on their own, dress and undress themselves (though they may still need a bit of help), put on their shoes, and even try to tie their shoelaces. They also require only minimal assistance with using the toilet and can wash their hands properly. ​ Fine motor skills Children enjoy practicing their dexterity in a variety of activities involving sand, building blocks, modeling clay, and drawing. A four-year-old child often draws "tadpole people," which are rough outlines of people. These figures have a head with basic facial features (eyes, mouth), and the arms and legs are attached directly to the head. While they typically draw with a specific idea in mind, the final product may be labeled as something entirely different (e.g., "I'm drawing a rabbit" but later declaring, "It's an elephant!"). They can draw wavy lines, slanted lines, and spirals. By touch, they can identify distinctly different toys and, by the age of five, even recognize differences in surface texture. They are able to open their hand one finger at a time, as if counting from one to five on their fingers. ​ Speech development A four-year-old can categorize pictures according to broader concepts and explain what eyes, books, or cars are used for. They listen to stories and understand the plot. By the age of five, they comprehend simple jokes and riddles, can create story sequences, and describe them. They can name the activities associated with specific professions. ​ World knowledge By the age of five, children can provide simple definitions of familiar objects. They understand their purpose, material, and shape. They can remember three objects and recognize which one is missing if it is hidden. Later, they can do the same with pictures. During the preschool years, children also begin to develop basic counting skills — they can recite the counting sequence (even if they skip some numbers) up to about ten and match number names to counted objects. Before the age of five, they start to grasp the concept of quantity, understanding that the total number of items is represented by the last number in the counting sequence. Social and emotional development A four-year-old child enjoys "helping" with simple and short household chores and completing small assigned tasks. They are capable of empathy, sharing, lending toys, and giving gifts. They show affection and protective behavior toward younger children. They can also talk about daily routines, identifying activities that typically happen in the morning, afternoon, and evening. At the ages of four and five, children rarely play parallel to each other (side by side) anymore. Instead, they engage in joint play with clear roles and shared goals. However, the level of play and role distribution depend not only on age but also on other factors. Children who attend preschool naturally have more opportunities to practice positive cooperation skills. ​ 5-6 years Motor development Od pěti let už umí dítě dobře házet a chytit míč, držet rovnováhu, chodit po kladině, stát nehybně se zavřenýma očima a výborně zvládá křížové pohyby. Tužku drží správným úchopem. ​ Fine motor skills By the age of five, children can copy a square, and by six, they can copy a triangle. Their drawings begin to reflect a clear idea or concept, with much more detail and better motor coordination. When they draw a "person," it now has a head, body, legs, arms, mouth, eyes, and nose. The arms are still often depicted as simple lines, and the proportions may be random. In contrast, the drawing of a six-year-old child (who is ready for school) is more advanced in all aspects — the hands and feet are no longer represented by simple lines but are fuller and better defined. By this stage, the child can touch the tip of each finger to the tip of their thumb. ​ Speech development Speech difficulties like "baby talk" (articulation errors) typically disappear before starting school or remain only minimally, often resolving spontaneously during the first year of school or with minimal help from a speech therapist. Up to the age of five, incorrect pronunciation of certain sounds (dyslalia) is considered normal. Between the ages of five and seven, it is considered an extended physiological norm (a broader standard of normal). After the age of seven, it is unlikely that pronunciation issues will resolve spontaneously. By the age of five, children can memorize short texts, identify broader concepts, recognize opposites, and, just before the age of six, they can identify synonyms, recognize words with the same sound but different meanings (homonyms), and create rhymes. They can recognize and name "nonsense" elements in a picture. Five-year-olds also actively and spontaneously engage with both children and adults in conversation. ​ World knowledge Children begin to understand and differentiate concepts such as "first," "before," "now," and "later." They can arrange pictures into a logical sequence (what happened first, what happened next). By the age of six, most children can correctly identify the number of objects (up to 10) using visual aids like counting objects. However, true arithmetic operations, such as addition or subtraction without visual support (like counting on fingers), are typically learned later in primary school. At the end of the preschool period, children begin to move beyond the family environment. Home is no longer enough for them, and they start to develop new relationships with events and people outside their familiar family setting. ​ Article author:  PhDr. Marja Voleman, PhD. Published: 9.12.2024 Main sources: Bednářová, Jiřina; Šmardová, Vlasta (2015). Diagnostika dítěte předškolního věku . Brno, Edika. ISBN 978-80-266-0658-1 Bednářová, Jiřina et al. (2017). Školní zralost a její diagnostika . Praha: Raabe. ISBN 978-80-7496-319-3

In preschool age, children have a strong interest in physical and mental activities. They are curious about the world around them and frequently ask "Why?", "Where?", "What?", and "How?". This is also a period when children need order, family rituals, calm guidance, and a stable environment both at home and in preschool. It is often referred to as a time of "carefree childhood," with no formal duties or responsibilities — just time to play. However, through play, children develop skills that form the foundation for future learning, including reading, writing, and math. The main areas that should be developed during this stage are: Speech development Visual perception Auditory perception Spatial perception Spatial orientation Graphomotor skills  (fine motor skills needed for writing) Basic mathematical concepts ​ Support for children aged 3-4 years  Support for children aged 4-5 years Support for children aged 5-6 years  ​ 3-4 years Motor skills Gross Motor Skills Gross motor skills form the foundation for the development of fine motor skills. Therefore, it's important to encourage physical activities for your child. Running, jumping, crawling, climbing over and under obstacles, throwing, balancing, and swinging all have a positive impact on your child's development. If you enjoy parent-child exercise classes, definitely take advantage of them. If you don't like organized activities, simply go outside with your child, visit playgrounds, and play tag, hide-and-seek, and encourage your child to climb on playground structures without fear. Fine Motor Skills Fine motor skills can be improved by involving children in daily activities and self-care routines. Baking Christmas cookies together is a perfect example! Encourage your child to try brushing their own teeth (just finish it off for them), combing their hair, and dressing themselves. Activities like zipping zippers and buttoning buttons are fantastic for developing fine motor skills. Try different craft activities like cutting (start with strips of paper and later move on to larger areas), gluing, threading beads, modeling clay, crumpling paper, as well as using tools like saws, screwdrivers, and hammers to hammer nails or tighten bolts. Playing with sand in a sandbox can be replaced at home with a tray filled with flour or semolina. You and your child can also draw and practice line-making in these materials. Another great option is kinetic sand, which is an enjoyable sensory activity for children while also helping to strengthen their hands. This type of sand allows for the creation of beautiful sandcastles, molds, and other shapes. Touching objects made of different materials or recognizing materials by touch is a great way to develop tactile perception. You can use bowls filled with legumes, pasta, pebbles, beads, or semolina. Later, you can challenge your child to identify objects by touch alone. A simple way to create a tactile memory game is to place three or four pairs of identical objects (like small balls, stones, toy cars) under a cloth. The child then uses their sense of touch to find and match the pairs. You can also introduce classic board games like memory games (pexeso), lotto, or dominoes. Pre-Writing Skills Around the age of three, children should start using a "tripod grip" to hold a pencil. This means that the pencil rests on the last joint of the middle finger and is held in place by the pads of the thumb and index finger. The fingers and hands should be relaxed, and the pencil should not be gripped too tightly. The index finger should not be bent backward. The pencil should extend beyond the skin fold between the thumb and index finger, with the pinky and ring fingers loosely curled into the palm. Drawing and Handwriting Don't force your child to draw; instead, provide opportunities for creative expression. It's best to use large surfaces for drawing. You can draw with chalk on the sidewalk or use finger paints on large sheets of paper. At three years old, it's normal for children to switch hands when drawing. Let them choose which hand to use, and over time, they will naturally settle on one. However, if your child is already drawing a lot on their own, it’s worth checking if they are holding the pencil correctly. ​ Visual perception A three-year-old child should be able to match objects of the same color. Name the colors often while your child is playing. For example, if you are threading beads, you can ask your child to first find all the blue beads, then the yellow ones, and so on. As you work together, describe what you’re doing: "Now we're threading a yellow bead..." Over time, the child will learn to recognize and point to the correct color, and by the age of four, they should be able to name basic colors on their own. ​ Spend plenty of time looking through books together. The more complex an illustration is, with more elements, the more challenging it is for a young child to recognize and focus on individual objects. When exposed to too many stimuli, the child may become confused and struggle to distinguish between individual objects, which may blend together in their perception. The same can happen if a child is surrounded by an overload of toys and decorations in their environment. To support development, use books with simple images and encourage your child to tidy up the toys they have taken out. ​ When reading a book, guide your child to find specific elements in the pictures. For example, ask, "Where's the dog? Show me the dog in the picture." After you put the book away, ask the child to recall what they saw in the pictures. This helps to develop their visual memory. ​ To support the child's understanding of parts and wholes, activities like puzzles (with just a few pieces), building blocks, or assembly toys are excellent. ​ Spatial perception Movement is essential for a child’s ability to perceive space, determine direction, and estimate distance. Activities with building blocks and construction sets also help develop spatial awareness. Use words like "up" and "down" (e.g., "What is at the top of the picture?" or "At the top of our body, we have our head and hair; at the bottom, we have our feet..."). Incorporate prepositions like "on," "into," and "in" in everyday activities ("Put the book on the shelf," "Put the toy into the box"). ​ Time perception Understanding the concept of time and the flow of time is important for children to recognize that each activity has its own time and place — for example, in the morning, we get up, get dressed, have breakfast, brush our teeth, and then head to preschool (or play at home if not attending preschool). A regular daily rhythm helps create a structured day and provides children with a sense of security. ​ To develop the ability to perceive the sequence of events, observe and talk about daily activities. Discuss what happened before and what happened after, as well as what needs to be done first and what comes next (e.g., "First, we put on our socks, then our shoes" or "First, we clean the vegetables, and then we cook them"). ​ Take advantage of walks to observe nature. Pay attention to animals and their young, and describe what happens. For example, "First, a small puppy is born, and then it grows into a dog." You can do the same with plants: "First, there is a flower bud, then it blooms, and later it grows into an apple." ​ Speech development Between the ages of 1.5 to 2 years, children enter the so-called "first phase of questions," asking "Who is that?" and "What is that?". Now, between 3 and 4 years, they are in the "second phase of questions," asking "Why?" and "When?". To support language development and thinking, it is important to patiently answer these questions. By the time a child is 3 to 4 years old, they should be speaking in full sentences and using compound sentences. Repeat words often and label everything you are doing or seeing. ​ At this age, children are typically interested in looking through picture books and commenting on the images they see. Take advantage of this interest. For example, if a child points to a red car in a book and says "Car," the parent can respond, "Yes, it's a car. And it's a red car." The child may then repeat, "Red." The parent can continue, "Yes, red. And your T-shirt is also red." Or, when the child points to the car, you can ask, "Yes, a car. Is it red or blue?" Keep in mind that the development of speech also depends on motor skills, especially the mobility of the tongue (try clicking the tongue, making a "devil face" by sticking out the tongue, or licking lips), lips (puckering the lips, imitating a fish by shaping the lips into a circle, whistling, smiling, and blowing raspberries), and the jaw (opening and closing the mouth wide like a lion or chewing like a cow). Breathing exercises can also be helpful, such as practicing deep belly breathing. Additionally, encourage the child to mimic sounds, like hissing like a snake, buzzing like a bee, or meowing like a cat. ​ Auditory perception and memory To support auditory perception after the age of 3, it is essential to engage in frequent conversations with adults, listen to fairy tales, sing songs, and recite rhymes and poems. It is also important to create an environment that is not oversaturated with auditory stimuli, such as constant background noise from a radio or TV. If we want to teach children to listen, we must provide the right conditions. This includes regularly reading together and talking about picture books. This not only supports auditory perception but also helps develop language skills. Remember, television cannot replace shared reading time. When watching TV, children often passively absorb the images, but they may not actively listen to the language. ​ Activity: Try listening to "silence." Focus on subtle sounds like the rustling of leaves in the forest, birdsong, the hum of a radiator, the ticking of a clock, or the distant sound of a passing car. ​ Basic mathematical concepts The development of mathematical concepts involves many partial skills and abilities in the areas of motor skills, visual and auditory perception, time perception, and speech. Among geometric shapes, children recognize circles and sometimes squares. ​ For children aged three to four, the most important way to build pre-numerical concepts is through manipulative activities combined with verbal prompts. The simplest concepts for children at this stage are small/big , few/many , and all . Later, more complex concepts like short/long , narrow/wide , low/high , light/heavy , same , bigger/smaller , and shorter/longer  can be introduced. By the end of this period, some children may already passively understand terms like less/more , some , and none . These concepts are best developed through play: placing the big car in the garage, threading a small bead, or cleaning up all  the toys. In terms of spatial orientation, it's important to introduce concepts like above, below, lower, higher, in front, and behind . ​ Children can be introduced to the concept of a number sequence through rhymes (like One, two, Johnny’s coming through… ) or during daily activities (e.g., I’ll give you two spoons, can you give me three beads? ). To help children recognize common characteristics of objects, you can sort different items together. For example, sort beads by color or size, pictures by category (furniture, toys, etc.), toys by location (for sand, for the bed, for water), cutlery, or clothing (by color, owner, etc.). 4- 5 years Motor skills Gross motor skills are supported similarly to the previous period, but the activities gradually become more challenging. The same applies to fine motor skills, where children work with smaller construction pieces, smaller beads, and similar items. Most children enjoy drawing, and the variety of themes in their drawings increases. If a child does not show interest in drawing after the age of four, it is advisable to offer activities that develop both gross and fine motor skills more frequently and regularly. Do these activities together so you can support and encourage the child, name the actions, and praise even small successes. Use thick or triangular crayons, ball-shaped drawing tools, triangular wax crayons, or finger paints. ​ Try to gauge what the child can already do, and offer tasks that are just a little more difficult than their current abilities. If the tasks are too easy, the child may complete them mechanically without learning anything new or may lose interest. On the other hand, tasks that are too challenging can discourage the child, leading to feelings of failure. Pay close attention to the correct grip of the pencil. ​ Visual perception By the age of four, children should be able to independently name basic colors. To practice this, it's good to sort objects by color and name the colors aloud. Over time, you can introduce other colors beyond the basics (like orange, purple, etc.). ​ Children enjoy looking at picture books with fewer details. It is still true that an overload of stimuli (whether in pictures, toys, or the environment in which the child lives) can be overwhelming. This overabundance may prevent the child from focusing, exploring, and fixing their attention on individual objects, making them feel distracted and confused. ​ Tip: Browse picture books and search for and name individual objects together with the child — even those that are partially hidden. ​ Children under the age of five tend to focus more on the whole rather than the details.  This is why puzzles, for example, become more interesting around this age. Over time, the child learns to notice differences. Encourage their interest in finding differences in pairs of pictures. At first, present pairs of pictures with more distinct differences between the elements. ​ Visual memory  is often developed in children of this age through the game of memory (also known as "pexeso"). However, visual memory can be developed throughout the day. Talk about what the child saw on a trip, at the zoo, or in a picture. This approach also helps develop their speech. Spatial perception Movement plays a crucial role in the development of spatial perception. Activities with building blocks and naming spatial relationships (like "above," "below," etc.) are also essential. By the age of 4-5, children typically master the concepts of above/below , low/high , lower/higher , and prepositional phrases like on , into , and in . They also start to solidify their understanding of concepts like front/back , first/last , as well as prepositions such as before/behind , above/below , next to , and between . New concepts such as in the middle , middle one , second-to-last , left , and right  begin to emerge. During daily activities, describe what the child is doing: "Now, put your right foot down, then your left." "Place the apple on the table." "The book is next to the toy car." This will support their understanding of spatial relationships. Time perception Helping children develop a sense of time requires maintaining a daily routine. This way, the child begins to understand that each activity has its own time and place. Between the ages of 4 and 5, children not only associate characteristic activities with specific parts of the day (for example, breakfast in the morning), but they also begin to describe the sequence of events. They become more aware of the order of steps in a process. Talk with your child about what happened earlier  and what happened later . Encourage them to think through the steps of daily activities: "First, we brush our teeth, and then we go to bed." ​ Tip: Look for activities in pictures that are typical for the morning, noon, and evening. Or observe nature together: "In spring, the tree blossomed, and later in summer, fruit ripened on it." Speech Between the ages of four and five, a child should be able to speak in developed sentences and complex sentences, conjugate verbs, and decline nouns. Their vocabulary is rich enough to communicate spontaneously, express their experiences and feelings, describe events, and narrate a story based on a picture. The child begins to use superordinate concepts and opposites. Work with the child on diminutives: house - little house - tiny house (dům - domek - domeček), as well as comparisons like small - smaller - smallest, and opposites like small - big, bigger - smaller. Pronunciation improves significantly during this period. Any remaining mispronunciations are still considered within the range of normal development (physiological), but by this age, it is advisable to consult a speech therapist to determine whether it is appropriate to begin speech correction or to wait for natural development. For children with slower speech development or more extensive mispronunciations, speech therapy may be necessary even earlier. Auditory perception The most important factors for developing auditory perception are frequent conversations with adults, listening to fairy tales, singing songs, reciting rhymes, and doing rhythmic exercises. A child at this age can already listen to longer fairy tales. It is important to create an environment that is not oversaturated with auditory stimuli (like constant background noise from TV or radio). ​ Tip: Practice sound localization and differentiation. Have the child sit in the middle of a circle with their eyes closed or blindfolded. A parent, sibling, or friend can make sounds from different directions — crumple paper, ring a bell, or knock on blocks. The child must identify where the sound is coming from and what it is. You can also play a game where the child recognizes musical instruments or counts the number of sounds. To start, play one to three identical tones on an instrument, and the child places a block in front of them for each sound they hear. ​ Basic mathematical concepts Manipulating objects combined with verbal instructions remains one of the most essential activities for building mathematical concepts. By this age, children already understand (passively, and many actively) concepts such as small/big, few/many, all, short/long, narrow/wide, low/high, empty/full, light/heavy, equal, smaller/larger, shorter/longer, and lower/higher. They also begin to understand concepts like less, more, some, and none. ​ In terms of spatial orientation, it is important to reinforce concepts such as up/down, lower/higher, front/back, first/last. By the age of five, you can begin introducing concepts like right, left, and middle. When it comes to geometric shapes, the child can recognize a circle, square, and is starting to recognize a triangle. ​ Tip: Try sorting objects into at least three size categories, which helps the child strengthen their understanding of concepts like small, medium, large, smallest, and largest. 5-6 years Motor skills It is essential to continue supporting the child's motor development. By the age of five, a child can throw and catch a ball well, so you can play games like throwing balls into a box, tossing buttons into a bowl, or tossing rings onto a stick. Walking along a curb during a walk is also a fantastic activity. Fine motor skills are practiced using smaller building blocks and beads. Try out various craft activities, such as sewing large buttons, threading fabric or paper with a blunt-tipped needle, making chains out of paper clips, or winding balls of yarn. ​ Take advantage of finger rhymes to practice fine motor skills. You can "clap" fingers together — thumb with index finger, middle finger, ring finger, and pinky — or play "the rain is falling" by tapping a table first with one finger, then with two fingers, and gradually tapping with three or four fingers. You can also rotate the wrist, "sprinkle salt" with three fingers, and so on. ​ Around the age of five, it is a good idea to introduce graphomotor exercises. By this time, the child should be holding a pencil with the correct tripod grip: the pencil rests on the last joint of the middle finger and is held in place from above by the pads of the thumb and index finger. The hand and fingers are relaxed and do not grip the pencil tightly, and the index finger is not bent. The pencil should extend beyond the webbing between the thumb and index finger. The pinky and ring fingers remain bent naturally in the palm. A preschooler whose development is on track will naturally seek out activities like drawing and painting. If a child avoids such tasks, it could indicate a delay in the development of graphomotor skills. Without support, these difficulties may deepen compared to their peers. Therefore, it is advisable to seek professional guidance from educational consultants. At home, focus primarily on gross and fine motor skills, as they form the foundation for graphomotor skills. Start with drawing on large surfaces (like big sheets of paper or sidewalks) while the child sits on all fours, which helps relax the shoulder. ​ Tip: In the summer, draw outside on the sidewalk with chalk. You can create beautiful pictures or draw a hopscotch grid and play together. ​ Visual perception By the age of five, a child should be able to name the basic colors and passively recognize additional shades. They also begin to distinguish color tones, such as light blue and dark blue. Children at this age are familiar with picture symbols and can understand more complex images. It is beneficial to continue looking at picture books, identifying and naming individual objects. Focus on small objects and partially hidden objects. Activities like tracing images that are covered with a grid or pattern are also excellent for visual perception. At this age, you can also "play school" and use activity sheets. Look for worksheets where the child has to find the shape that differs from the others, match an object to its shadow or outline, or pair up matching objects. Children's magazines often provide great activity ideas, such as "spot the 10 differences" puzzles. ​ Try putting together puzzles or mosaics with your child. Visual memory can also be developed through memory games like picture-matching card games (Pexeso). When flipping through a book, children should turn the pages from front to back, and when looking at images or letters, they should learn to observe from left to right. To reinforce this, name the objects in a picture while moving from left to right. In the preschool period, you can also include worksheets that reinforce proper eye-tracking movements. ​ Spatial perception For spatial perception, direction recognition, and distance estimation, movement is essential for children — on playgrounds, during walks, and in movement games. Children at this age master spatial concepts like above/below, low/high, lower/higher, front/back, first/last  and prepositional phrases like on, in, into, before/after, above/below, next to, between . They also reinforce concepts like right after, right before, left, and right . By the end of this period, children begin to understand and follow two or more instructions, such as "top right" or "bottom left." You can practice this by drawing a house with nine windows (three windows per floor) and asking, "Who lives in the top-right window?" or "Who lives in the middle window at the bottom?" Tip: Play "Simon Says" to practice recognizing right and left sides and body orientation. For example, "Simon says, put your left hand on your right knee." Tip: Play a treasure hunt game with closed eyes. Give verbal instructions such as "Go straight, turn right, move forward, turn around, turn left," etc. Time perception To help children develop a sense of the passage of time, it's crucial to maintain a daily routine so they can recognize that each activity has its time and place. Discuss parts of the day (like "In the afternoon, we'll visit Grandma"), days of the week ("Today is Sunday, and tomorrow on Monday, you'll go to kindergarten again"), and seasons ("Remember how our tulips bloomed in the spring?"). Most preschoolers already distinguish between weekdays and weekends. Children can also associate events with the concepts of yesterday, today,  and tomorrow . ​ Speech By the time they reach the age of five or six, children should have fully developed speech. They should use all types of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.) and speak grammatically correctly. Pronunciation should also be accurate. Between the ages of five and seven, minor articulation issues (known as "developmental lisping") are still considered normal. When asked, children should be able to say their first and last names, the names of siblings, friends, and parents, their age, and their home address. Try playing games where children identify antonyms (opposites, e.g., light-dark, wide-narrow ), synonyms (similar words, e.g., beautiful, pretty, gorgeous; run, dash, sprint ), and homonyms (words with multiple meanings, e.g., tooth, leaf, crown ). Encourage children to predict what might happen in various scenarios (e.g., "What would happen if you went outside in your socks?" or "What would happen if a man crossed the street at a red light?"). Also, practice sequencing story events by arranging picture cards in the correct order and encouraging your child to tell the story. Talk about different professions and what people in those jobs do. Tip: Say a list of words and ask your child to identify which one doesn't belong (e.g., dog, giraffe, stone, chicken  — stone  doesn't belong because it's not an animal). ​ Auditory perception By this age, preschoolers should be able to recite a few poems, counting rhymes, and songs. They should also be able to listen attentively to read-aloud stories and retell them at least in general terms. Include games that develop auditory functions needed for school readiness, like reading and writing. Focus on sound discrimination (e.g., sibilant vs. non-sibilant sounds, voiced vs. voiceless sounds, hard vs. soft consonants, short vs. long vowels ), identifying the first and last sounds in a word, counting syllables in words (by clapping out each syllable), and counting words in sentences. You can also play "word chains." The first player says, "I'm going on vacation, and I'm taking a suitcase." The next player repeats the sentence and adds an item: "I'm going on vacation, and I'm taking a suitcase and a t-shirt." Each player continues the chain, adding a new item. Another option is to play the classic game "Chinese Whispers" (Telephone), where one child whispers a word to the next, and it gets passed around the circle. The last child says the word aloud, and you compare it to the original. Focus on the ability to filter and prioritize sounds. Read a story, and have the child clap every time they hear a specific word (like a character's name or a frequently mentioned object). Rhythmic exercises — clapping, stomping, and tapping rhythms — also help children reproduce rhythms and patterns. Tip:  Chinese Whispers  (or Telephone ) is a game where players sit in a circle, and one child whispers a word or phrase to the person next to them, who then whispers it to the next child, and so on. The last child says the word or phrase out loud, and everyone compares it to the original. You can start with words and later use entire sentences. ​ Basic mathematical concepts Mathematical concepts are developed through a variety of previous skills, particularly motor and graphomotor skills. Therefore, it is essential to play with objects to give children experience with quantity, size estimation, and distance. Graphomotor skills influence written expression, math note-taking, and drawing shapes. By this age, children recognize the shapes of a circle, square, triangle, and rectangle. It's essential for children to distinguish between numbers such as 3 and 5  or 6 and 9  and recognize the symbols +  and - . Language development is also crucial for mathematical understanding, focusing on concepts like none, more, less  (e.g., "Don't take any beads," or "Take as many candies as your brother"). Sorting activities also foster mathematical awareness. You can sort pictures or objects into categories like toys, vehicles, clothing, animals, flowers, etc. If something doesn't fit a particular group, discuss why. Sometimes children sort using different criteria than expected — for example, you may want to create a set of trees, but the child may sort them by color. Geometric shapes can also be sorted, and you can group words by the number of syllables. Before starting school, children should be able to count up to six, both forward (1 to 6) and backward (6 to 0). The goal is to understand the concept of number . Children over five should recognize that the number of objects in a group does not depend on their color, size, shape, material, position, or arrangement. Children who can count higher numbers (e.g., up to 50) before starting school have often learned it by rote, like a nursery rhyme, without understanding the concept. To help them grasp the meaning of numbers, practice decomposing numbers. For example, ask your child to take two beads and then find how many more beads they need to make five. Tip: Create cards with images. The child counts how many objects are in the picture and takes the same number of objects or blocks from a box. Later, you can introduce cards with written numbers. Have a set of cards with numbers from 0 to 5 and a set with pictures containing 0 to 5 objects. The child matches the number cards to the picture cards and collects the corresponding number of real objects. If you want to support your preschooler in a structured way before starting school, consider checking out online course Cortex kids  designed to prepare children for school. ​ Author of the article:   PhDr. Marja Voleman, PhD. 10.12.2024 Main sources: Bednářová, Jiřina; Šmardová, Vlasta (2015). Diagnostika dítěte předškolního věku. Brno, Edika. ISBN 978-80-266-0658-1 Bednářová, Jiřina et al. (2017). Školní zralost a její diagnostika. Praha: Raabe. ISBN 978-80-7496-319-3

Middle childhood — typically from ages 6 to 12 — is a dynamic period of physical, cognitive, emotional, and social growth. During these years, children become more coordinated, independent, and socially aware. Their movements become faster and more precise, language flourishes, and friendships grow deeper. This article explores key developmental changes in school-age children, with a focus on motor skills, perception, speech, socialization, and peer relationships — providing insights for parents, educators, and therapists who want to support children during this important phase. Motor development Gross and fine motor skills significantly and continuously improve throughout this period. The age range of 8 to 12 years is often described as the "golden age of motor learning." Movements become faster and more precise, muscle strength increases, and children show improved performance in writing, drawing, and sports activities. At first, children's movements when performing practical tasks are concentrated in the shoulder and elbow joints. It is only with further practice that they achieve finer coordination of wrist and finger movements. At the age of eight, the motor performance of boys and girls is roughly the same, but by the age of ten, notable differences emerge. Motor performance does not depend solely on age, but also on external conditions. Children who are encouraged to be active by parents or other adults show faster improvement. On the other hand, children who are physically weaker or are restricted by their parents tend to show lower performance, lose interest in physical activities, and miss out on opportunities for development — creating a vicious cycle. Children with persistent primitive reflexes may also appear less skilled. Studies have repeatedly shown that physical strength and agility play a significant role in a child's social standing within peer groups. Boys who are smaller or weaker are often lonelier, and some behavioral or emotional issues can be traced back to this. However, some children successfully compensate for physical shortcomings through achievements in academics, music, or other activities where they have natural talents. Perception Sensory perception also improves significantly during the school years. Perception is not merely a collection of elementary sensations but a complex psychological process influenced by all aspects of the child's personality — attitudes, expectations, concentration, perseverance, past experiences, interests, and existing abilities. As children grow, they become more focused and persistent. They examine objects thoroughly, not just as a whole but also by analyzing individual parts in great detail. Speech Speech, like motor skills, continues to improve during this period. Speech development is critical for academic success as it supports memory and learning. School-age children experience significant growth in vocabulary, sentence complexity, and grammatical accuracy. A seven-year-old child knows about 18,000 words, while an eleven-year-old knows more than 25,000. However, these figures are only rough estimates, as there are considerable individual differences in vocabulary development. Socialization The process of integrating a child into society accelerates significantly with the start of formal schooling. Parents remain important role models for children, but teachers and classmates also play an increasing role. By this age, children understand that emotions, desires, and motives can be hidden from others. Moral development occurs gradually. For children up to around 6 or 7 years old, "good" and "bad" are determined by adult authority — if parents or teachers approve of something, it is good, and if they disapprove, it is bad. Around the ages of 7 to 8, children begin to recognize certain behaviors as right or wrong independently of adult authority. However, this sense of morality is quite rigid at first. They apply rules equally to everyone, with no exceptions. For example, taking food without permission is always seen as bad. It is not until around the ages of 11 to 12 that children begin to consider the motivations behind people's actions. For example, they might recognize that a woman who takes food without permission to feed her starving child is acting out of necessity and might even see this as a justifiable exception to the rule. By the age of eight, children can engage in organized cooperation during play. Group games and team sports become popular. During early school years, boys and girls play together naturally and without hesitation. However, at the same time, socialization begins to align with gender-based roles. Girls tend to engage more in household-related activities, often helping their mothers, while boys start assisting fathers in more "masculine" tasks (e.g., chopping wood). This distinction is also seen in children's drawings and their future aspirations. Boys often express the desire to be policemen, firefighters, or NHL hockey players — roles associated with power, physical strength, and success. Girls, on the other hand, are more likely to choose professions with social, caregiving, or communicative aspects. Friendship and peer relationships During middle childhood (9 to 12 years), the nature of friendships changes. Boys and girls no longer play together as freely as before. Instead, boys tend to form friendships with other boys, and girls with other girls. This separation likely serves to strengthen behavior associated with gender identity. Boys begin to exhibit behaviors typical of "boyhood" — speaking loudly, boasting, using rough language, wrestling, and competing to show their bravery and strength (e.g., jumping from heights, engaging in nighttime adventures, or achieving sports milestones). During this period, boys may avoid talking to or interacting with girls. Sometimes, being locked in a classroom with girls is seen as a form of punishment. Girls, in contrast, exhibit stereotypically "feminine" behaviors. They begin to style their hair more, wear jewelry, giggle, and shriek in groups. They may borrow makeup from their mothers and try it on. In groups, girls are bolder, often "flirting" with their male teachers to test their developing sense of femininity. Later in this period, more intimate friendships emerge. Often, two girls become "best friends," sharing secrets and talking about everything. They may have sleepovers where they stay up late discussing their "secrets." Interestingly, these friendships often exist in pairs — when a third girl enters the picture, one of the original two may be "replaced," and a new best-friend pair is formed. Boys, on the other hand, tend to form groups of three to four friends. Boys usually come together for a specific purpose, such as playing ball, riding bikes, or testing the limits of rules (like engaging in mildly forbidden activities). Author of the article:   PhDr. Marja Voleman, PhD. Published 10.12.2024 Main sources: Edice dobrá škola (2012). Diagnostika, školní zralosti. Praha: Raabe. ISBN 978-80-87553-52-7 Langmeier, Josef; Krejčířová, Dana (2006). Vývojová psychologie. Praha: Grada. ISBN 978-80-247-1284-0 Velemínský, Miloš (2017). Dítě od početí do puberty, 1500 otázek a odpovědí. Praha: Triton. ISBN 978-80-7553-148-3

Movements triggered by primary reflexes help create a dense neural network that enables connections between different areas of the brain. These connections are crucial for future learning processes, communication skills, emotional and social relationships, and motivation. As higher brain centers develop, primary reflexes gradually become an obstacle and must be inhibited for the brain to develop neurologically in the correct way. Children with learning disabilities, attention issues, or any other impairments often have persistent primary reflexes. This is logical, as their brains have developed in a suboptimal way and thus could not inhibit these reflexes. However, primary reflexes continue to affect muscle tone, posture, movement coordination, concentration, smooth eye movements, cooperation between brain hemispheres, and many other areas — just as they do in infants. Persistent primary reflexes can therefore cause symptoms similar to those seen in learning disabilities, speech disorders, or attention issues (like ADHD or ADD). If these issues are caused by primary reflexes, it is essential to inhibit these reflexes. Other special education intervention methods may not work well for these children. After working with primary reflexes, it is possible that the issues will completely disappear. However, it is also possible that the child genuinely has a learning, speech, or attention disorder, which led to the brain's suboptimal development. By inhibiting primary reflexes, we can reduce these issues, but we may not eliminate them entirely. It is important to combine this approach with the help of other specialists, such as speech therapists, special educators, physiotherapists, or occupational therapists. The development of children can be imagined as the growth of a tree. We are used to looking at whether a child can read, write, or count. But these are just the "apples" on our tree. If we want to grow beautiful, red apples, we need a strong, well-rooted tree. The roots form a solid trunk, from which strong branches, leaves, and fruits grow. While every tree is unique and original, it is governed by the same natural laws, principles, and elements. This is why it is so important to see a child's development and upbringing in terms of: Roots  (birth and the moments after birth) Trunk and branches  (the child's psychomotor development) Crown  (sensory and emotional abilities, cooperation between brain hemispheres, binocular vision) Fruits  (school skills, speech, proper posture, movement coordination, etc.) If the tree is not strong enough or the foundations are weak, we cannot build on it. Methods that are commonly used may be too difficult for some children. We have to start from the ground up! Neuro-developmental stimulation (NDS)  addresses issues from the ground up. As the respected British expert on learning disabilities, A.E. Tansley, aptly put it: "...before looking for social-emotional aspects, first we must ask: does this child have the neurological equipment needed to succeed at his age...???"  (in Zweegman, 2010) For proper learning and behavior, we need good cooperation between the brain and the body. For reading, we need smooth eye movements. For writing, we need proper hand-eye coordination. For all motor skills, we need a well-functioning balance system. Any problem in these areas reduces the ability to learn. Therefore, learning difficulties are not necessarily caused by low intelligence. Primary reflexes deeply influence basic physical and psychological response patterns. “The ability to sit up and sit still requires perceptual support from the vestibular and proprioceptive systems in addition to the neuro-motor systems, thus highlighting postural control as an essential foundation for more skilled academic and motor performance.”  (Ayres, 1960 in Roley et al., 2007) In simpler terms, this means that entire muscle groups must work together and coordinate with the balance system and postural system to allow a child to sit or stand still. This ability is essential for learning. Children with a weakly developed postural system have trouble sitting still and concentrating for extended periods, as the brain must constantly engage to maintain balance and posture. These functions should be automated by the time the child is three years old. “Other areas of development can also be at risk due to delayed motor skills development. Hyperactive children need constant motor feedback to properly perceive their surroundings and for their brains to function correctly... As a result of the constant need for motor movement, they cannot focus on a single task...”  (Goddard, 2005) To effectively help a child, we need to determine whether their issues are caused by physical factors, such as persistent primary reflexes. If we identify their presence, we apply simple physical exercises that help improve neural connections between the brain and the body, as well as between different brain centers. This creates a solid foundation for all aspects of learning. Therapies to inhibit primary reflexes Currently, various methods are used worldwide to suppress (inhibit) persistent primary reflexes and eliminate the problems they cause. These therapeutic methods are based on different principles. Some use movement therapy, sound therapy (or a combination of sound and light), eye exercises (such as those used in behavioural optometry), or sensory integration techniques. In Europe, therapies that inhibit primary reflexes through movement include Primary Movement®, the INPP method, and the Dore Programme. In the United States, popular approaches include the Masgutova Method (MNRI), the Doman Delacato Method, and the Levinson Method. In Australia, methods such as NeuWays, the STNR Program, and the Braintrain100 Developmental Movement Program are commonly applied. Other internationally recognised approaches work through auditory input. For example, Bérard Auditory Integration Training uses specific sounds to activate different centres of the brain. Quantum Reflex Integration™ goes further by combining sound with light via low-level laser therapy. Neuro-developmental stimulation (NDS) I personally use Neuro-developmental Stimulation (NDS), which I have gradually developed based on my studies in physiotherapy, special education, various courses, and most importantly, practical experience. NVS combines physiotherapy with special education. The tests and exercises are based on the child's psychomotor development. Neuro-developmental stimulation can be practiced by specialists such as speech therapists, psychologists, educators, and special educators after successfully completing the introductory theoretical course and the follow-up practical course for Neuro-developmental Stimulation (NDS Active Learning®") . Author of the article: PhDr. Marja Voleman, PhD. Published: 10.12.2024