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This period is sometimes called the "good child" phase. During this time, children enjoy being with adults, engaging in "adult" activities, accompanying them in their hobbies (playing sports, playing games together), or helping them with work (cooking, working in the workshop). Enjoy this precious phase! ​ Zdeněk Matějček divided the school-age period into three stages: Younger school age : approximately 6 to 8 years Middle school age : approximately 9 to 12 years Older school age : overlaps with puberty ​ Younger school age (6-8 years) The younger school age is considered a transitional period between the playful preschool years and the more mature behavior of a schoolchild. A young first-grader typically starts school with great enthusiasm for learning and acquiring new knowledge. At this stage, children do not need much external motivation to learn. They ask questions ("Why?"), explore new things, and see new school tasks as challenges. Their internal motivation to learn comes naturally and does not require external rewards or punishments. This motivation is driven by three main factors: curiosity, accepting problems as challenges, and a desire for greater control over the environment or greater competence. Children in younger school age are still playful and can only concentrate on one task for a short period — usually about 10 minutes at the beginning of school. This is important to remember when working on homework with them at home. It is essential to frequently change activities and allow for short (ideally physical) breaks. Even in first grade, activities change frequently during lessons because it would be impossible for children to sit quietly and focus on one thing for 45 minutes. If learning sessions are too long, young students may start to get up, walk around, talk, or eat — behaviors they were used to before starting school. Teachers not only have to teach their students to read and write but also to follow certain rules, adapt to others, and develop work habits. ​ Tip: When doing homework with your first-grader, take a short break after about 10 minutes. It can be as simple as getting a drink of water or chatting briefly about something unrelated. ​ The personality of the first-grade teacher is crucial, as they form a general model of the "teacher figure" in the child's mind. It’s a great advantage if the child has a positive relationship with their first teacher. However, if this relationship is not successful, parents must support the child in dealing with the challenges of interacting with a teacher who is not always kind or understanding. ​ The most important thing is to have a variety of activities and change them frequently. Children at this age do not have strong willpower, and their physical fatigue is closely linked to their mental fatigue, and vice versa. Frequent changes in activity can help prevent this. Children begin to gain strength and develop speed, agility, and reflexes. ​ It’s a great time to introduce children to sports. Sports should be enjoyable for the child, providing joy from movement, ideally in the fresh air, while fostering positive relationships with peers and promoting fair play. Sports activities should develop the child's body comprehensively and not place one-sided strain on it. For children aged 7 to 12, sports should primarily focus on agility and endurance. A good sport not only supports the natural development of all parts of the musculoskeletal system but also fosters desirable competitiveness, a sense of belonging with teammates, and respect for opponents. Studies have shown that physical strength and agility play a significant role in a child's position in a group — often influencing admiration, popularity, and leadership roles. Smaller or weaker boys are more likely to become loners, and some neurotic symptoms or behavioral problems can stem from this. Other children manage to compensate for their shortcomings in different ways — excelling in schoolwork or other activities, such as music. Children at this age still love fairy tales. Take advantage of this interest to motivate them to learn to read. Reading is essential for children to expand their vocabulary, learn to express themselves, become familiar with grammar rules, understand texts, extract essential information, remember it, and work with it — all while gaining general knowledge. Do you think that explaining these reasons to a child would be enough to motivate them to read? Probably not. But if they experience reading as fun, joyful, adventurous, and relaxing, they will be drawn to it naturally. This experience can't be explained — it has to be felt. Try reading together. At first, you can read aloud while pointing to the words with your finger so the child can "passively read" along with you. Later, you can take turns reading sentences, paragraphs, or pages. After reading, discuss the story with your child — ask them what happened, how they would have done things differently, and more. In other words, enjoy it together. ​ The quality of a child’s language depends significantly on opportunities to talk with parents, siblings, classmates, and teachers at school. Reading also helps expand vocabulary and improve expressive skills. At this age, children also enjoy encyclopedic books that offer clearly explained, well-organized, and illustrated information. These books help children see connections between different aspects of life and the world around them. ​ This age is also known for collecting hobbies , as collections provide orientation points regarding the surrounding world. Children collect things that relate to their interests (castles, prehistoric animals, football player stickers, etc.). It's good to give children space for this kind of independent, creative activity. ​ Children also show a tendency to organize their environment , not only in their collections but also in group activities. They want everything to be "the way it should be," and anything "different" bothers them more than at later stages of development. This "different" can refer to a classmate with glasses, a speech impairment, a child from a different ethnic background, or even a child who is exceptionally smart. Children at this age can be particularly cruel, excluding anyone who is "different" from their group. This is where family upbringing, as well as the influence of teachers and institutions, plays a vital role in shaping children’s social attitudes. ​ Children’s imagination and creativity  can be enhanced through creative activities. A younger schoolchild can work with a variety of materials and enjoys artistic activities. Encourage creative projects with simple, inexpensive materials (stones, buttons, bark, fabric scraps). Role-playing games also foster creativity, such as building a snow igloo, playing with puppets, or creating "homes" in the garden. Children love activities that encourage thinking and creativity, such as chess, board games like Monopoly, and even some video games. At this age, boys and girls still play together without any awkwardness. However, this is also the stage when socialization toward "masculine and feminine skills" peaks. Girls tend to take on more "female" household tasks and enjoy helping their mothers with these activities. Boys, on the other hand, lean toward helping their fathers with traditional "male" chores (like chopping wood). This is reflected in their drawings and in their dreams of future careers. If you ask them what they want to be when they grow up, boys often say a police officer, firefighter, or NHL hockey player (all professions linked with power, physical strength, and success). Girls, on the other hand, choose professions that have a social, caregiving, or communicative aspect. ​ Like every transitional period, this phase is marked by increased emotional swings and vulnerability. Therefore, children require more patience and support from parents and teachers. Children at this age tire more easily. It's essential to give them some downtime when they return from school. However, don't leave homework until the evening. For better sleep, it's ideal for children to finish all their duties before dinner so they can have a calm and relaxing evening. ​​ Middle school age, 9-12 years The middle school age, from 9 to 12 years old, is a more stable and defined period. By this point, most children have adapted well to school. Their focus shifts toward real-life situations, although it is still somewhat influenced by heroic fantasies. At this age, children begin to pay more attention to relationships between people — within their family, neighborhood, and elsewhere. The influence of the peer group increases significantly, and children strive to conform to the group's norms, even if these norms sometimes conflict with family values. ​ Children's desire to understand the world around them is reflected in their interest in documenting events in diaries. They become excellent observers, able to focus their attention on specific details and record them. Next time there is a bird-watching event, take your child to a park (or garden) and try counting the birds together. ​ The start of school significantly affects the quality of the language they use. Children are exposed to various levels of speech production, they must assert themselves in conversations, and they must accurately interpret specific texts (like math problems). It is beneficial to play language games together or simply engage in conversation. Watching TV cannot replace live interaction between people. ​ During this period, children's peer groups change. Boys and girls no longer play together as freely as before. Boys begin to form friendships with boys, and girls with girls. This is likely an essential process for strengthening behavior typical of one's gender identity. This stage, which lasts until around 12-13 years of age, sees boys behaving in "very boyish" ways — they speak with bravado, act noisily, sometimes use crude language, boast, fight, and engage in heroic stunts (jumping from heights, nighttime adventures, athletic feats). At this stage, talking to "girls" or being friends with them is seen as undesirable. It is even considered a punishment for a boy to be "locked in" a classroom with girls. ​ Similarly, girls exhibit very "feminine" behaviors. They style their hair, wear prominent accessories, giggle, shriek, gossip, and whisper together. They borrow makeup from their mothers and start experimenting with it. When they are in groups, they often act boldly and sometimes "flirt" with teachers to test their femininity. Friendship changes significantly at this stage. Girls often form deep, close friendships with one other girl. They confide in each other, discuss everything together, take walks, decide what to wear to school, visit each other's homes for sleepovers, and have "heart-to-heart" conversations late into the night. Interestingly, these friendships tend to form as pairs. If a third girl joins, the "best friend" dynamic often shifts, and a new duo forms. Boys, on the other hand, tend to form groups of 3-4 friends. They gather for a specific purpose, such as playing ball, riding bikes, or trying something "forbidden." ​ Over the course of their schooling, most children's motivation to learn decreases, and by the higher grades, teachers may be surprised by the students' apparent disinterest in lessons. Curiosity remains in only a few exceptional children or in areas where the child has a specific interest. But how can this be? Research shows that offering external rewards (like school grades) tends to reduce intrinsic motivation for learning. For example, in one experiment, preschool children were introduced to a new art technique. One group of children participated to receive a "diploma" as a reward, while the other children either received no reward or were unexpectedly given a reward afterward. The latter two groups maintained a high interest in the activity later on during free play at preschool. However, interest dropped significantly among the children who had participated solely to receive a diploma. ​ The middle school age and preadolescence are the optimal periods for establishing habits that promote health and well-being. However, the motivation to adopt these habits often comes not from an understanding of health benefits but from the desire to keep up with peers or assert independence from family authority. This applies to areas like sports, exposure to cold (like cold showers), and dietary habits. ​ Children are highly susceptible to peer pressure, which carries certain risks. Peer pressure can lead children to engage in negative behaviors, such as bullying or underage drinking. On the other hand, they need peer relationships for their games and social development. In peer groups, children try out different roles and behaviors and observe how others react to them. Contact with children of various ages is also essential, as it teaches them to adapt to different roles — to submit to older children, care for younger ones, and assert themselves among peers. ​ Around ages 11-12, most children experience a noticeable (but usually temporary) drop in self-esteem. A significant component of self-esteem at this age is the evaluation of their academic success. From the start of their school years, children's self-esteem steadily declines. This happens because, as they grow, they begin comparing themselves more to their peers. Low self-esteem reduces children's motivation for schoolwork, which in turn negatively affects their academic performance. Therefore, positive self-esteem is crucial for mental well-being. However, self-esteem should be realistic. It should not be so low that a child never believes in themselves, but it also shouldn't be inflated to the point of overconfidence. Children with overly inflated self-esteem may have difficulties interacting with others. An essential part of healthy self-esteem is the way children perceive the causes of their successes and failures. If success is seen as random or due to luck, self-esteem will be lower. If failure is attributed to internal, unchangeable factors (like a lack of ability), children believe that nothing can be done to change it, leading to low self-esteem. A realistic, positive self-evaluation means children recognize that their success results from their own abilities and effort. Failure is seen as a chance to learn and grow because mistakes result from causes they can influence (like working harder or setting more achievable goals). How parents can support healthy self-esteem The role of parents is vital. Instead of constant praise, parents can help strengthen self-esteem by showing children that success depends on their abilities and effort. Parents should emphasize that mistakes are primarily learning opportunities. Important tip : Every child should experience success. While one child might excel at math, another might be great at taking care of younger children, plants, or animals. What's crucial is for children to feel that they have some control over their own lives and that they have the power to shape their daily experiences and future. The peer group also has a significant impact on the development of self-esteem. Author of the article : PhDr. Marja Voleman, PhD. Published: 10.12.2024 Main sources : Černá, Olga (2014) . Čtení není žádná nuda . Prague: Portál. ISBN 978-80-262-0720-7 Edice Dobrá škola (2012) . Diagnostika školní zralosti . Prague: Raabe. ISBN 978-80-87553-52-7 Langmeier, Josef; Krejčířová, Dana (2006) . Vývojová psychologie . Prague: Grada. ISBN 978-80-247-1284-0 Velemínský, Miloš (2017) . Dítě od početí do puberty, 1500 otázek a odpovědí . Prague: Triton. ISBN 978-80-7553-148-3 Disclaimer:  The information provided in this article is specific to the Czech educational system and may not apply to other countries. Educational systems, policies, and practices vary widely around the world, so please consider this context when interpreting the content.

Symptoms of visual stress are common in children and adults who have difficulties with reading, dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, dyspraxia, ADD and ADHD, autism, epilepsy, migraines, and disorders related to eye coordination (binocular vision). Visual stress is a common symptom of the Moro reflex . The most common symptoms of visual stress are headaches, eye pain (burning, itching, red eyes, tearing), and the sensation that written text is moving. Children with visual stress tend to dislike strong contrasts, such as black letters on a white page. Sentences, words, or letters may appear to "dance" or move. Those affected by this problem may skip letters or entire lines when reading, read quickly but with many errors, and have difficulty understanding the text. The text may become blurry, letters may change in size, or they may see double letters or additional letters at the end of words. Letters may appear fuzzy, darker, lighter, or flickering. Some people perceive patterns in the text or see shapes or colors in the white spaces between sentences, which can be distracting (and sometimes obscure the text). This often leads to light sensitivity, dizziness, nausea, and fatigue. Visual stress can also result from children using their vision to compensate for defects in the vestibular system. As a result, the child's visual system becomes overloaded. Children who use vision as a compensation for vestibular system deficits may struggle with finer visual skills, such as distance perception, smooth side-to-side eye movements (essential for reading text), and the ability to quickly refocus between distant and close objects (important for copying from the board). A first aid solution for children with visual stress can be colored reading overlays . However, these do not resolve the root cause of visual stress. Therefore, it is essential to address the underlying issue, such as inhibiting primary reflexes  (especially the Moro reflex ) and improving the function of the vestibular system. Article author: PhDr. Marja Voleman, PhD. Published: 24.7.2022 In English: 10.12.2024

Dysgraphia is a specific disorder of written expression. The term "dysgraphia" is derived from the Greek word "grafein" , which means "to write" , and the prefix "dys-" , which denotes something as "impaired" or "abnormal" . Dysgraphia is a specific disorder of written expression. The term "dysgraphia" is derived from the Greek word "grafein" , which means "to write" , and the prefix "dys-" , which denotes something as "impaired" or "abnormal" . Dysgraphia is a specific learning disorder that affects the overall layout of written work, the mastery of simple letters, the ability to imitate shapes, the association of sounds with letters, and the sequencing of letters. It is characterized by impaired motor skills, difficulties with movement automation, and problems with motor and sensory-motor coordination. Children with dysgraphia struggle to remember letter shapes and confuse letters that look similar. Their handwriting is often disorganized, awkward, and clumsy. Students with this disorder may take a long time to learn to write within the lines and maintain consistent letter height. Their handwriting is slow and laborious, and they often display incorrect pencil grip. Excessive focus on the graphical aspect of writing can make it difficult for them to concentrate on spelling rules. The causes of dysgraphia are primarily related to deficits in gross and fine motor skills, movement coordination, overall body organization, visual and motor memory, attention, spatial orientation, and the coordination of systems that convert auditory or visual input into graphic form. This includes difficulties in the connection between phonemes and graphemes during dictation, as well as the ability to convert printed letters into cursive ones. When writing, children with dysgraphia may exhibit two extremes in terms of pace. Their writing may be either extremely slow or overly fast and rushed. Most often, the issue is a combination of poor fine motor skills, reduced visual imagination (inability to visualize letter shapes), and the inability to remember the motor patterns required to form letters. Manifestations of dysgraphia in elementary school Poor layout of written work Unable to keep pace with classmates , making more mistakes, especially during dictations or time-limited tasks Difficulties with math  — students may struggle to write down numbers correctly and face problems solving word problems Inability to produce neat handwriting  and organize text clearly on a page Problems maintaining horizontal alignment of letters Writing with excessively large or small letters Phonetic writing , i.e., writing words as they are heard Inability to make corrections simultaneously while writing Source:  Bartoňová, Miroslava (2018) Primary reflexes and dysgraphia Primary reflexes can cause a range of symptoms associated with dysgraphia. Moro reflex Negatively affects concentration Increases sensitivity to visual and auditory stimuli , causing the child to be easily distracted, constantly looking around to see "what's flying by." Hyper-sensitivity to sensory input  — in response, children may shut down and become unresponsive to their surroundings. Disrupts body perception  (proprioception). Asymmetrical tonic neck reflex (ATNR) When a child looks to the right (as soon as their head crosses the midline of the body), the arm and fingers on that side reflexively extend . This makes learning to write properly much more difficult. To compensate, children often rotate the paper by up to 90°  to avoid fighting against the reflexive extension of the fingers. This also leads to unusual letter slants — letters may lean too far forward or backward. Causes tight gripping of the pencil . Hinders hand-eye coordination . Prevents the development of cross-pattern movements , which in turn disrupts the cooperation between brain hemispheres. Palmar reflex When the child grasps a pencil , the palmar reflex prompts them to reflexively curl their fingers into a fist . This is why young children often hold the pencil with a full-hand grip (palmar grasp). Tonic labyrinthine reflex (TLR) Alters muscle tone . When the child looks down at their notebook, their body reacts as if it wants to curl into a fetal position. This change in tone causes hypotonia  (low muscle tone), which leads children to rest their head on their hand  or lean on the desk  when writing. As they lean forward, they exert more pressure on the pencil. Hinders body awareness and spatial orientation  (often accompanied by dysfunction of the vestibular system). As a result, children may reverse letters and numbers . Impairs gross motor skills and movement coordination . Symmetrical tonic neck reflex (STNR) Causes difficulty switching focus  from near to far objects and back (e.g., copying text from the board to a notebook). Impairs balance and hand-eye coordination . When sitting, children may wrap their feet around the chair legs, sit on their feet, or find other ways to stabilize their legs. In response to the reflexive extension of the legs, they may rock back and forth on their chair  — the classic "rocking on a chair" behavior. Author of the article: PhDr. Marja Voleman, PhD. Published: 10.12.2024 Sources used : Bartoňová, Miroslava (2018).   Specific Learning Disorders . Brno: Paido. Volemanová, Marja (2019).   Persistent Primary Reflexes: An Overlooked Factor in Learning and Behavioral Issues . Statenice: INVTS.

Developmental dysphasia, also known as a specific language impairment (SLI), is characterized by a reduced ability or complete inability to learn to communicate verbally, even when the conditions for speech development are adequate. In developmental dysphasia, there is a disruption in the central processing of speech signals . This means that while the child can hear and see properly and has no auditory or visual impairments, their central nervous system and brain are unable to adequately process auditory and visual signals from their environment. Delayed speech development and language disorders are more commonly observed in boys. Main characteristics of the disorder Delayed speech development : The child's vocabulary does not match their age, they may not form complete sentences or may only use short, simple sentences with grammatical errors. They may leave out prepositions, distort words, misuse word endings, fail to use all parts of speech, rearrange word order, or struggle to use reflexive pronouns like "se"  and "si" . Speech sound disorders (dyslalia) : The child speaks unclearly, or their speech may be difficult for others to understand. They may replace certain sounds in words, omit sounds or syllables within words, and have difficulty pronouncing certain phonemes. Uneven development : There is a significant discrepancy between the child's verbal and non-verbal abilities (this difference can be identified by a clinical psychologist). Impairment of memory functions : Developmental dysphasia is often associated with deficits in short-term verbal memory . For example, the child may struggle to repeat long words without distortion or repeat multi-word sentences. At two years of age, a child should be able to repeat a two-word sentence, at three years a three-word sentence, and so on. Impairment of visual perception : This is often seen in the child's drawings, where the human figure may have disproportionate body parts. Their drawing skills are often significantly delayed compared to their peers. Impairment of auditory perception : Children with developmental dysphasia have difficulty distinguishing between individual phonemes and may struggle to differentiate between similar-sounding words (e.g., "dog"  vs. "dock" , "coat"  vs. "goat" , or "pear"  vs. "bear" ). Impairment of spatiotemporal orientation : These children may struggle with concepts such as left  and right , or the understanding of time concepts like yesterday, tomorrow, morning, evening , etc. They may also struggle to understand family relationships (e.g., uncle, aunt, cousin, brother ). Impairment of gross and fine motor skills : Children with developmental dysphasia may have difficulty coordinating the movements of their arms and legs (e.g., standing on one leg, hopping on one foot, alternating hand movements, weaving through cones, or learning to ride a scooter, bicycle, or skis). Laterality issues : Laterality refers to the dominance of the right or left hand or eye. Children with developmental dysphasia often exhibit cross-dominance  (for example, left-hand dominance but right-eye dominance, or vice versa). Some children may have mixed laterality , using both hands interchangeably when drawing or writing. Primary reflexes and developmental dysphasia Many symptoms of developmental dysphasia are similar to those caused by persistent primary reflexes . Let’s take a closer look at the impact of these reflexes. Moro reflex Increased sensitivity to sensory stimuli : The child cannot focus properly unless they "shut themselves off" from their environment — but if they do this, they may no longer be aware of what is happening around them. Difficulty filtering background noise  from relevant sounds (like speech). During normal development, grammar is learned naturally when children interact with their peers and adults (especially in preschool). Children with a persistent Moro reflex, however, may struggle to focus on the speech of others because they are constantly distracted by other sounds. As a result, they may not fully register the grammatical changes in words and endings. Impairment of short-term memory : This further affects their ability to follow instructions or learn new words and grammatical rules. Imagine a child with these challenges in a noisy preschool classroom. After a short time, they may become agitated, as they cannot process the multitude of sensory inputs. Alternatively, they might retreat into themselves and play alone in a corner. If the teacher announces a transition to a new activity, the child may not hear or process the instruction. These children often rely on routines  to compensate — for example, if they see that the other children have left to go to the changing area, they will follow. These behaviors (playing alone, being unresponsive, disliking change) might be mistaken for signs of autism . Unfortunately, children with persistent Moro reflexes and/or developmental dysphasia  are sometimes misdiagnosed as having autism spectrum disorder (ASD) . Tonic labyrinthine reflex (TLR) Gross motor difficulties : The child may try to move their whole body when performing simple movements (known as holokinetic movement ). For instance, if they bend one leg, the change in muscle tone may cause them to also bend the other leg and arms. Skills like hopping on one foot  or learning to ride a bicycle  are especially challenging. Impairment of spatial perception and balance : This affects the child’s ability to understand left/right, up/down, front/back  spatial concepts, as well as temporal concepts  like today, yesterday, tomorrow, in an hour . Asymmetrical tonic neck reflex (ATNR) Fine motor issues : This includes not only difficulties with hand movements  but also issues with the fine motor movements of the speech organs  (which impacts articulation) and eye movements . Reduced interhemispheric cooperation : If the two brain hemispheres do not communicate effectively, the brain requires more energy to function. This can result in slower responses , mental fatigue , and inattention . Delayed lateralization : This refers to the preference for using one of the paired organs (like the hands, feet, eyes, or ears) for specific tasks. Poor lateralization means that dominance is not established, and the child may alternate hands or feet for different tasks. Sucking and rooting reflex Oral sensitivity and motor issues : These children may experience unusual sensitivity around the mouth  and may struggle with the motor movements of the speech organs . Motor control issues in the hands : The Babkin reflex  connects hand movements with mouth movements, so this reflex may also affect hand coordination . Unusual oral habits : Children may lick their lips (leading to chapped lips), drool , smack their lips , or spit . Speech articulation  is affected, and the coordination of breathing, speaking, and eating can be problematic. Palmar reflex Poor pencil grip : When a child holds a pencil, the palmar reflex  causes their fingers to reflexively curl into a fist. This is why children often grip pencils with their whole hand. Hypersensitivity of the hand : The hand may be oversensitive to touch, leading to discomfort or awkwardness during writing or drawing activities. In addition to speech therapy , it is advisable to check for persistent primary reflexes  in children with developmental dysphasia. Reflex persistence is common in these children. If present, the reflexes should be inhibited through Neuro-Developmental Stimulation (NDS) . Author of the article: PhDr. Marja Voleman, PhD. Published: 10.12.2024 Sources used: Volemanová, Marja (2019).   Primary Reflexes: An Overlooked Factor in Learning and Behavioral Problems in Children . 2nd expanded edition. Statenice: INVTS. ISBN 978-80-907369-0-0.

You might be wondering why we’re talking about gifted children in the context of retained primary reflexes . After all, aren’t gifted kids the ones who breeze through everything without trouble? Not quite. While gifted children often demonstrate above-average abilities and high intelligence, this doesn’t mean they are immune to neurodevelopmental challenges – such as retained primary reflexes . Gifted individuals are characterized by significantly high intelligence, multiple above-average abilities, and a qualitatively different way of thinking and brain functioning. This unique neurocognitive profile often manifests in distinct patterns of perception, emotional experience, understanding, and behavior (Stehlíková, 2016). Psychologist Dalibor Špok  offers a comprehensive description of gifted personality traits on his website. He categorizes these traits into six key areas: Overexcitability Gifted individuals show heightened sensitivity in systems responsible for processing sensory, emotional, and cognitive stimuli. Their nervous system reacts more strongly and more intensely to input than in the general population. High Cognitive Abilities They score in the highest ranges on intelligence tests. Speed of thought, depth of analysis, and the ability to see multiple perspectives simultaneously are common characteristics. Divergent and Nonconformist Thinking Gifted people often generate original, creative, and unconventional solutions or opinions. Their high sensitivity and strong internal values contribute to their independence and innovative thinking. Exceptional Perceptivity Their heightened perception and deep information processing can lead to extraordinary creativity but may also result in hypersensitivity to light, sound, tactile stimuli, or smells. High Energy and Intrinsic Motivation Gifted children tend to have immense inner drive and a fast-paced rhythm, constantly seeking change, novelty, and challenges. Routine or repetitive tasks quickly exhaust them. Their pattern of fluctuating focus and energy can sometimes mimic symptoms of attention disorders. Emotional Sensitivity Increased emotional reactivity may lead to difficulties in relationships – especially in situations where others do not understand the depth or intensity of their emotional responses. Giftedness and Nervous System Sensitivity Giftedness isn’t only about high IQ – it’s also about a unique way of perceiving and responding to the world. Experts like Dalibor Špok and giftedness specialist Jana Stehlíková point to the frequent presence of overexcitability , a concept introduced by Polish psychologist Kazimierz Dąbrowski . This heightened responsiveness can involve emotions, sensory input, physical movement, or imagination. This raises an important question: Could these sensitivities and signs of internal overload be linked to retained primary reflexes, such as the Moro reflex? Primary reflexes that should have naturally integrated in early childhood can, in some children, remain active. This may interfere with sensory integration and emotional self-regulation – leading to symptoms such as hypersensitivity to light or sound, distractibility, chronic fatigue, or emotional instability. Interestingly, these same symptoms can also be observed in some gifted children. Compensation Instead of Support One of the biggest challenges for gifted children is their ability to compensate  for their weaknesses. Thanks to their high intelligence, they often develop coping strategies that help them mask developmental delays or struggles. On the surface, they may appear average – so their true difficulties go unnoticed. As a result, they may become “lost treasures”  of society (Smítková, 2017). This is especially true for twice-exceptional children  – those who are both gifted and have a learning difficulty, ADHD, autism spectrum disorder, developmental language disorder, or another form of neurodiversity. Their academic performance tends to be uneven, and they may struggle with completing assignments, handling time pressure, or coping with fear of failure. Consequently, they are often misidentified as average learners. When Giftedness Masks Challenges Retained primary reflexes may be one of the hidden factors affecting gifted children – and yet, because they manage to function just well enough , no one thinks to investigate deeper. But compensation is exhausting  and not always sustainable – especially during times of stress, illness, or major change. These children may have “good days,” when everything goes well, and “bad days,” when their coping strategies collapse. This inconsistent performance can take a toll on their self-confidence and motivation . Many begin to believe that their “good days” were just luck – and that they are not truly capable. Brain Development Starts with the Basics The connection between early brain development, primary reflexes, and cognitive potential is emphasized by Dr. Ranko Rajović , physician, neuroscientist, and founder of the NTC Learning System . In his work, he stresses that healthy brain development and the growth of intelligence begin in early childhood – and a key component of this is the integration of primary reflexes . If these reflexes persist, they may limit the child’s full potential  – even in the case of highly gifted individuals. Author: PhDr. Marja Voleman, PhD. Published: 24.3.2025 Sources: Volemanova, M (2013 a 2019). Přetrvávající primární reflexy. Statenice: INVTS s.r.o. Stehlíková, J. (2016).   Nadané dítě a rozvoj jeho nadání . Praha: Portál. Špok, D.  (2018). Nadaní dospělí: Praktický průvodce životem s výjimečnými schopnostmi.   www.daliborspok.cz Smítková, M. (2017).   Dvojí výjimečnost: Vysoký potenciál a specifické poruchy učení. Silverman, L. K. (2008).   Giftedness 101 . New York: Springer Publishing. Rajović, R.   Jak rozvíjet inteligenci dítěte hrou: NTC metoda . Praha: Edika.

We must approach the child's development comprehensively. It concerns not only motor skills but all aspects of personality, including sensory and mental development. That is why we also speak of psychomotor development or the development of a child in terms of movement and psychology. It is a complex and comprehensive process that includes many components, such as gross motor skills, which include turning from stomach to back, crawling, standing, and walking. It also includes fine motor skills, such as hand manipulation and playing with toys. The psychomotor development of a child also involves social, cognitive, mental, oral (food processing in the mouth, lip and speech movements), and other skills. Many factors contribute to the speed and quality of a child's psychomotor skill development. Genetic and hereditary traits can affect overall strength, agility, and general aptitude for physical activity. Culture, sufficient physical activity, and overall lifestyle also play a significant role. Most children acquire motor skills in well-predictable phases referred to as developmental milestones. Every child is different, and we must take into account whether the child was born prematurely or at term. However, according to the American pediatrician Gesell, there are several key moments in which a child should be able to do certain things at certain times. Arnold L. Gesell (1880-1961) formulated some laws of child development: Body control progresses from head to toe (cephalocaudal progression of development). Therefore, a child must be able to hold its head correctly in order to engage the deep stabilizing muscles of the trunk, which is a prerequisite for proper body posture and coordination of movements. Progress from the center of the body to the periphery means that limb movements begin in the shoulder and hip joints and pass through the wrist to the fingers. From this, it follows that the development of motor skills progresses from gross to fine motor skills. The development direction of the elbow and radial bone indicates a progression from the little finger side of the palm to the thumb side in active grip ("pinch"), which is why a young child first grasps objects with the whole hand, and only later can a proper grip on a pencil, for example, occur. However, it is not only important when a child begins to do something, but also whether and how well all stages of development have occurred and whether any of them have been skipped. ​ Below is a description of a child's development by trimesters: 1st trimester (0-3 months) 2nd trimester (4-6 months) 3rd trimester (7-9 month) 4th trimester (10-12 month) 1st trimester (0-3 months) ​A newborn baby sleeps most of the day, even up to 20 hours a day in the first two weeks after birth. A small baby can often only stay awake for an hour at a time before their brain becomes overloaded. Some babies become so tired that they fall asleep, while others paradoxically appear more alert. Their brain becomes so overloaded that they are unable to sleep (which can be one reason why babies often cry a lot in the evening). If there are problems with falling asleep, it may be helpful to try putting them to bed earlier, before they become too "active". About 70% of three-month-old babies and 80% of eight-month-old babies sleep from midnight to 5 am at night. ​ All primary (newborn) reflexes are well-equipped. In the first hours after birth, the newborn begins to take in food through their mouth for the first time. To do this, they have a system of reflexes, automatic reactions that facilitate their acquisition of food. The most important ones are the rooting and sucking reflexes. If the little person feels touch on their face, they turn their head towards the place of touch thanks to the rooting reflex, as they expect their mother's nipple, the source of food, to be there. Therefore, it is not recommended to stroke the baby's face during breastfeeding. When evaluating primary reflexes, their symmetry (equal reaction on both sides) is also important. The child reacts to strong auditory or visual stimuli with the movement of their whole body - the Moro reflex. Global movement patterns are present in a newborn, where the position of the head affects the position of the limbs and trunk, and therefore also the body posture, which is still physiologically asymmetrical. When the baby lies on their back, their head automatically turns to one side, and their arms and legs reflexively react accordingly. The arm and leg on the side of the face stretch out, while the arm and leg on the other side are flexed. A healthy newborn can turn their head to both sides. Motor skills The muscle tone of a newborn is naturally higher. During the second month, muscle tone decreases and physiological (natural) hypotonia (lower muscle tone) appears, which disappears by the end of the first year. In a supine position, the newborn is still unstable. When viewed from above, you can see that they are not lying flat but in a curved shape. Sometimes, rotation of the head can also cause rotation of the trunk, even turning to the side. When pulled up to a sitting position, the newborn's head falls backward. Gradually, during the first three months, the baby learns to gain stability on their back, and at around three months, you will see that they can lift their arms and legs into the air for a moment without falling to the side. You will also notice this when changing the baby's diaper. At the beginning, every time you lift their legs, the baby startles and throws their arms to the side - the primary startle, or Moro reflex, is activated. But after three months, they will lie still and happily play with their hands. ​ In a prone position, at first, the legs are bent under the baby. The buttocks are higher than the head, and the center of gravity is on the forehead. Occasionally, the baby briefly lifts their head asymmetrically above the surface. Gradually, the center of gravity moves from the head to the chest, belly, and even to the pubic bone (symphysis). At three months, they lean on their elbows, and their legs are almost extended. They can hold their head straight with their neck extended for several minutes (not just in a flexed position). Note that if your baby is lying in a prone position at three months with their fists under their chest and their head flexed backwards, this is not the correct way to lift the head! ​ At first, the thumb of the hand is bent in a fist. In the second month, the palms are already open, and at three months, we see the beginnings of grasping. They grasp objects from the side with their little finger. ​ Senses Surprisingly, newborns have well-developed sensory abilities that have only recently been recognized in detail. These senses help them perceive the surrounding world, orient themselves in it, and learn to respond to it from the first days of life. ​ Newborns may have a slight cross-eye and turn towards light, with eye movements being only horizontal. They can only see objects that are larger (especially colorful) within an angle of 45-60 degrees (that is, they briefly fixate on a large object in their line of sight), with alternating monocular fixation with each eye. Visual acuity at birth is low (around 20/400). Newborns are not yet able to accommodate (focus on objects at varying distances). By the end of the third month, vertical eye movements appear, and accommodation and convergence are more advanced. The baby begins to fixate and track objects, freely turning its head at an angle of 150 degrees. When the mother leans over the baby, they briefly make eye contact and smile (reactive social smile). ​ In response to acoustic stimuli, the baby may blink (acoustic facial reflex) or jerk their whole body (Moro reflex - startle response) depending on their strength. Newborns can recognize human speech sounds well. They become more alert when they hear a female voice with a higher pitch, as they expect the source of food is approaching. A deeper male voice with lower tones, on the other hand, tends to calm them. Loud screaming with a high pitch can cause anxiety in them, just as in an adult. During the first weeks of life, newborns learn to distinguish their mother's voice (the person who brings them food) from other female voices. ​ In addition to a well-developed sense of hearing, newborns also have a good sense of smell, and they already have developed taste preferences (preferring a sweet taste). Smell helps them orient themselves in the surrounding environment the best. Newborns turn away from unpleasant smells, while pleasant smells attract them. Within a week of birth, they can recognize the scent of the mother's nipple, and it has been found that they can perceive the scent of the mother, not just the smell of breast milk. ​ Social skills and speech At two months old, a baby starts to say long vowels like "aaa, eee". Their main means of communication at this age is crying. The baby quickly learns that crying is an effective way to get not only care and protection, but also positive attention from their mother. In the first few months after birth, the amount of crying increases and reaches its peak for most babies around two months of age. By three months, crying is less frequent and more differentiated. Babies also start to laugh loudly at three months. ​ BEWARE OF FALSE "SUCCESSES" If a baby almost rolls over onto their stomach at two months old, it's not a success but a warning. The baby is able to perform the movement due to increased muscle tension, so the baby first tilts their head and then there's increased tension in the back muscles usually on one side, causing the baby to turn. The same applies in reverse. At this age, the baby doesn't turn from their stomach to their back, they simply fall over. If the baby tries to turn their head towards you, it's a head tilt with the head turned to one side. The head is large and heavy, so it can tilt back and fall onto their back. Pay close attention to how the baby lifts their head and where their hands are when they are lying on their stomach. At the beginning, their hands are by their chest, with their fists clenched and their head lifted only briefly. Gradually, they learn to place their hands further forward, supporting themselves with their entire forearms. At the end of the third month, they can place their hands even further forward so that their elbows are under their shoulders and they can relax their fists while keeping their back straight. This means that their head is not only tilted (with a sunken chest), but their spine is extended. DEVIATIONS THAT REQUIRE CONSULTATION WITH AN EXPERT Within six weeks : If the baby holds their head only on one side while lying on their back Significant tilting of the head Uneven movement of the arms or legs, or if they do not lift their legs equally high Limited movement of the legs Between six weeks and three months: When lying on their back if the baby predominantly holds their head to one side Very little leg movement or one leg is significantly lower than the other At three months, the head is not aligned with the body's axis and center of the face when looking forward When lying on their stomach if the baby cannot lift their head their elbows are not equally positioned if they fall to one side The baby's fists remain under their chest or shoulders, their elbows are not positioned under their shoulders, and their hands are not relaxed by the end of the third month. Second trimester, months 4-6 The baby is already interested in its surroundings, actively observing and reacting with a smile or cry. If the baby had enough time to practice the prone position, from the end of the twelfth week it gradually masters the so-called "tummy time". In the fourth month, there is a significant decline in primary reflexes, except for the reflexive grip on the lower limbs. The baby should already have open palms to begin the development of a free grip. ​ Motor skills The baby is stable on its back (center of gravity between the shoulder blades) and moves actively. It holds its head in the middle position and spontaneously turns it to both sides, while having a symmetrical posture of the limbs (holding them equally, unlike the asymmetry of newborns). It lifts its legs high above the surface, grasping them with its hands and later putting them in its mouth. It grasps toys with both hands and, in the sixth month, even with one hand from the side using the little finger and adjacent fingers. It starts playing with its hands, with eye-hand-mouth coordination appearing. It brings its hands to the center of its visual field. The baby begins to put toys in its mouth and pass them from hand to hand under visual control. During traction testing (a test used by pediatricians, you don't have to do it!), when pulled into a sitting position, the baby begins to hold its head in the axis of the trunk, but then repeatedly falls forward. At the end of the fourth month, the head only slightly falls backwards. In the fifth month, the baby begins to turn from its back to its belly. The baby starts pulling itself into a sitting position at six months, while also bending its head and trunk forward and bending its legs (so-called "ball" position). However, the baby still cannot sit up by itself. If we sit the baby without support, it sits in a forward position, in the so-called "frog position". It turns from its back to its side and gradually to its belly. Therefore, we do not passively seat the baby! ​ The child is already holts his head upright - meaning, their head is symmetrically upright at an angle of about 45-50° above the surface with their head lifted and freely rotating towards stimuli (such as a rattle). The trunk is erect between the shoulders, and the child is supported by their entire forearms, including their elbows, with their palms slightly open or fully open. The child must be stable in this position and not fall back onto their back. This position is crucial for further development of upright posture. At six months, the child learns to shift their weight to one arm and release the other hand to grasp objects (meaning, their head and grasping hand are no longer within the support base). By the end of the sixth month, the child can lift themselves into a "high support," which means they prop themselves up on their outstretched upper limbs with open palms and an upright head. They then lean against their thighs, shifting their center of gravity downward. ​ A six-month-old child can hold larger objects with their palm grasp, using their entire hand with four fingers, without opposition of the thumb. Opposition of the thumb (towards the palm) gradually becomes incorporated into the grasp. The child can grasp a toy even across the midline of their body and can bang it against the surface. ​ Senses The child can detect smaller objects in their visual field within a 180-degree angle. They have better color perception and prefer the color red, which also has an activating effect on several brain centers, stimulating development. Moving visual stimuli can capture a six-month-old child's attention for several minutes without causing significant eye strain. Fixation is now binocular. Until the sixth month, it is still normal for the eyes to occasionally alternate looking inward. However, if this persists after the sixth month, the child should be examined by an ophthalmologist. The child's attention is increasingly directed towards auditory stimuli, and they react even to quiet sounds. ​ Social skills and speech The child smiles at the image in the mirror. They begin to babble (throat sounds) and coo (a-a-a, e-e-e). Gradually, they babble in their own language, which serves to activate their auditory and speech centers. They are already able to express their emotions well with their voice; they also show their dissatisfaction in ways other than crying. The child begins to distinguish strangers, from whom they may feel fear. ​ BEWARE OF FALSE "SUCCESSES" Do not put children in walkers or jumpers. It often happens that if you put children in walkers when they are not yet crawling or walking independently, they begin to walk on tiptoes. These children often have problems in school with reading and writing, and hyperactivity is often typical. In general, walkers and jumpers are not suitable because the muscle corset of the trunk is not yet prepared for such stress. DEVIATIONS THAT REQUIRE CONSULTATION WITH AN EXPERT If you notice that a child is using one hand significantly less or only grabbing the toes of one foot if they only roll to one side if they don't gradually lean on their outstretched arms it may be a sign of concern. Third trimester, 7th-9th month By seven months, a baby can turn from their belly to their back and touch their raised legs. They may also play with two toys at once. They start to crawl actively, and it's only a small step to crawling on all fours. ​ Motor skills At seven months, a baby plays with their legs and sometimes even puts them in their mouth (coordination of hand-foot-mouth-eye). They become more stable on their side. On their belly, they do the "airplane," lifting their hands, head, and legs up. They turn around their own axis and later roll over – coordinated movement from belly to back via a certain side position and then on to the other side. hey gradually move into a position on all fours, where they rock for two to three weeks. Then they start to crawl – initially backward, later forward, alternating upper and lower limbs.They can begin to attempt a slanted sitting position from all fours. They can sit passively but not yet by themselves. The baby starts to sit on its own via the slanted position at around eight months. It can now support its weight if held by both hands. By nine months, the baby will not lie on its back for long any more, immediately turning over to its belly. It moves onto all fours, sits up, and tries to stand up. It can sit by itself, with several ways to do so, including from all fours, from the belly, from standing, and the most mature way is independent sitting from the back position. Depending on the way they sit, it is called slanted, obstacle, heel, Turkish, or straight sitting. At eight months, the baby can sit for about 10 minutes. Crawling is now steady and coordinated (leaning on hands, knees, and ankles, with differentiated limbs). At eight months, the baby can get into an upright squatting position with support. It can stand if held by, for example, a playpen. ​ Fine motor skills Fine motor skills significantly improve and move towards the thumb. The child begins to be interested in details and small objects. They can already reach for a ball directly. They purposefully grasp objects above their head, where they must lift their little arm. At eight months, they enjoy manipulating objects, putting them inside each other or in a pile, and throwing them. They cannot yet deliberately place objects. They pick up small crumbs from the carpet, grab a ball, hit blocks together, and remove a cube from a cup. They can hold a bottle by themselves, grip a roll or cookie and start eating. In the ninth month, the child begins to grasp small objects with their thumb and index finger, with the thumb in opposition - so-called pincer grasp. They explore space and actively and purposefully release objects from their hand (throwing toys, pulling objects out of drawers, etc.). They only take objects with one hand. ​ Social skills and speech The child pronounces syllables and begins to double them. At eight months, the child repeats and doubles syllables ("da-da", "ba-ba", "ma-ma", etc.), imitates sounds (cough, etc.), and gestures. They begin to understand speech - they turn to their name when called. They already have rich facial expressions. The period of first separation begins, meaning that they start to move away from their mother for a short time when crawling or walking and then return. At the same time, they experience fear when they cannot see or hear their mother. In this period, the child has a significant fixation on their mother or caregiver and is less friendly towards strangers. The child begins to learn that many things exist even though they cannot see them at the moment. They start to follow an object that has fallen. They usually lose sight of it for a moment, but then tilt their head and body to look for it on the ground. They also begin to understand the functions of some objects, such as using a comb to brush their hair or turning the pages of a book. In the ninth month, their first word with meaning may appear. They understand phrases and respond to their first playful interactions (such as "bye-bye", "daddy", etc.). They can eat a cookie or roll by themselves. BEWARE OF FALSE "SUCCESSES" If a child is walking at ten months, it is a warning sign for us. It has likely skipped some developmental stages, most commonly the crawling stage. If the child still has a large symmetrical tonic neck reflex or tonic labyrinthine reflex, it cannot perform alternating movements of the arms and legs well. Therefore, it is easier for them to stand up and walk in small steps (there is no need for such a large movement in the hips and knees, the arms are outstretched and do not move). Pay attention to how the child crawls. The child should crawl in a coordinated, crossed pattern (right hand and left knee, left hand and right knee), with the arms and knees shoulder-width apart, and the tips of the toes slightly turned towards each other. If children have too low muscle tone and weak abs (due to a persistent primitive reflex or other reasons), they crawl with a curved back and a protruding bottom, with their arms and legs in a wide base and their toes turned outwards. Sometimes, a homologous (one-sided) model of movement also appears, i.e., the right arm and leg, and then the left arm and leg. Beware of W-sitting. Children with lower muscle tone, delayed gross motor skills, or weak abs tend to sit with their buttocks between their legs (if you looked from above, their legs "draw" a large letter W), with their feet positioned with the toes pointing out and the heels inwards. This creates a wider base, making them more stable. On the other hand, the trunk does not have enough freedom of movement. The child has less rotation in the trunk, does not reach over the center of the body, which subsequently affects the cooperation of the brain hemispheres. Children with normal muscle tone sit on their heels with their toes pointing inward. If you see suboptimal crawling or sitting, do not hesitate to consult a physiotherapist. DEVIATIONS THAT REQUIRE CONSULTATION WITH AN EXPERT If the child doesn't catch both legs (always only one or not at all). If the lower arm stays under the body after rolling over. If the child continues to crawl by pulling with only one arm or always bending the same leg (i.e., always pulling with the right or left hand only). If the child pulls the trunk with one hand, alternating regularly with the other hand, it is called "crawling (seal crawling)," which is okay. In a healthy child, this crawling period lasts only briefly. If the child pulls with both arms at the same time while crawling, and the legs are stretched out. Once the child gets to "all fours," they still fall on the same side. Fourth trimester, 10-12 months From the tenth month of a child's life, development slows down slightly. The body begins to physically and mentally prepare for the first steps and walking. It is important for parents during this period to remove all dangerous objects within the child's reach that could harm them. The infant will soon become a toddler. A one-year-old child is very independent, exploring the surrounding world, curious, and very willing to help and tidy up. The child discovers the world, and it often happens that they fall and hurt themselves. In such cases, the parents should be there to comfort and soothe the child, blow on the painful spot, so that the child can go back to exploring, knowing that they have the option to cry it out. Motor skills The child stands at furniture and begins to walk around it using steps while holding onto both hands and stepping with their full feet. They alternate between sitting and crawling. The child gradually stands with support on the entire surface of the foot, releases one arm for activities other than supporting themselves, and becomes increasingly agile and quickly climbs stairs, furniture, etc. Sitting is firm with a balanced lumbar spine. The first independent steps appear (usually between the 12th and 15th month, up to 18 months is within the norm). This is primitive and immature walking (type 1): the upper limbs have a balancing function, there is no swing of the leg during stepping, only bending at the hip and knee joints, the tips of the feet slightly point towards each other, and the foot lands on the full surface. There are no joints in the limbs during walking. Steps are short (shorter than the length of the foot). Walking is not stable, and falls are frequent. The squat puts the child on their full feet with the center of gravity on the heels and the outer edge of the foot. ​ Fine motor skills The child is now able to eat with a spoon and drink from a cup on their own. They can grasp a small ball with their thumb and index finger in opposition and release it spontaneously. They are able to put the ball in a cup. The function of the upper limb shifts definitively from supporting to grasping. Social skills and language At ten months, the child can already utter one or two meaningful words, as well as babble (syllables with strong intonation). They understand simple commands and can perform a movement on demand. When prompted to "give it to me," they will hand over the object, but will not let go of it. They put a cube in a cup but won't let go of it. Laughter is becoming more frequent. Children begin to understand humor and fun. They express their joy through smiles, squeals, or loud throaty laughter. They learn children's games ("peek-a-boo," "bye-bye," "tick-tock," etc.) and reveal hidden toys. They start cooperating with dressing (lifting their legs and arms). In the first year, they use two or more meaningful words. They understand simple commands and questions (they look for things by name, hand over objects and let go of them when told to, etc.), respond to their name, and can engage in cooperative play (with a ball, etc.). They are interested in pictures in books. The child gives kisses, but may be shy. They express their desires through gestures. They care for dolls or stuffed animals. From a developmental perspective, we refer to the first year as the period of physiological infancy. The period of physiological non-speaking lasts until the age of three (a broader norm), so we don't need to worry if the child is not yet speaking (as long as they are making some sounds and responding to prompts). If the child has no problems with vision, hearing, speech organs, intellect, and receives good stimulation from the family, it may simply be a slower maturation that will catch up over time. ​ DEVIATIONS THAT REQUIRE CONSULTATION WITH AN EXPERT If the child does not crawl If the child skips the crawling stage and stands on their feet right away. If crawling is irregular and not in a cross pattern. If the child does not transition from crawling to sitting. If the child still needs help to stand up by pulling themselves up with one hand and stepping forward with the same foot, while only pulling the other foot. If the child cannot get into a squatting position on both knees. ​ Article author: PhDr. Marja Volemanová, PhD. ​21.4.2023 Main sources used: Hudák, Radovan; Volný Ondřej; Kachlík David (2019). Memorix anatomie. Praha: Triton. ISBN 978-80-7553-420-0 Volemanová, Marja. 2019. Primární reflexy, opomíjený faktor problémů učení a chování u dětí. 2. rozšířené vydání. Statenice : INVTS, 2019. 978-80-907369-0-0 Langmeier, Josef; Krejčířová, Dana (2006). Vývojová psychologie, 2. aktualizované vydání. Praha: Grada. ISBN 978-80-247-1284-0 Velemínský, Miloš (2017). Dítě od početí do puberty. Praha: Triton. ISBN 978-80-7553-148-3 Kleplová, Věra; Pilná, Dobromila (2007).Našemu sluníčku. Praha: Anag. ISBN 978-80-7263-357-9

the first year of life, we could predict quite accurately when a child would acquire certain skills. However, the older the child gets, the harder it becomes. Each child is an individual and influenced by various factors, such as different conditions for development, temperament, predisposition, constitution, and mental life. Some children start walking before their first birthday, while others start at a year and a half (within the normal range up to 18 months). Therefore, do not take the following overview of motor development too strictly as each child is different. ​ Development in toddlers: 13-15 m onths 16-18 months (up to a year and a half) 19-21 months 22-24 months (up to two years) 25-27 months 28-30 months 31-36 months (up to three years) 13-15 months Gross motor skills The child is able to pull themselves up to standing and begins to walk with arms outstretched and legs wide apart. Crawling still prevails. Around 50% of children start walking at 13 months, but they can't stop yet and must sit down to do so (often falling into a seated position). By 15 months, they can run stiffly and only fall occasionally. They manage stairs by crawling or with the support of an adult, and can go down them feet first. They also begin to conquer small obstacles. ​ Fine motor skills The child practices releasing their grip, holding a pencil in their fist, and scribbling on paper. They try to stack blocks to make a tower, but can only manage to stack two at most. They start putting small objects into a box and enjoy watching objects fall. If the child is placed on a potty at the right time, for example after waking up, they cooperate but still cannot indicate when they need to go on their own. Success in toilet training depends on how well the mother understands the child's needs. At this stage, the child does not yet fully understand the need to urinate and cannot control their bladder voluntarily. It is not until the end of the second year that they start to signal their needs on their own. Social skills and speech The child tries to drink from a cup, can hold a spoon but cannot yet feed itself. It clumsily aims for the mouth. It gestures with its hands, clapping their hands and gradually trying more complex ones such as simple nursery rhymes and songs. It points to objects of interest and later, when asked, to some body parts ("where is your nose?"). It likes to pull a toy on a string. It brings an object from another room on command and says "here" or "thank you" when giving or taking something. By the end of 15 months, the child can say around 10 to 15 words. 16-18 months Gross motor skills The child gradually learns to run, stop, turn, and run back. It enjoys running, but finds it hard to stand still. It can stand up and squat with relative ease. When picking up objects from the floor while standing, it must be careful not to lose its balance. It climbs on furniture and walks up stairs while holding onto a hand with the "step by step" method (one foot is placed next to the other). It can walk downstairs while holding onto one hand. It kicks a ball by "making a big step" instead of just kicking it. ​ Fine motor skills It can build a tower with two to four blocks and turn the pages of a picture book. When turning the pages of a regular book, it often turns several pages at once. It can try playing with modeling clay. It scribbles with a pencil on paper, though still in an uncoordinated way. It likes to empty things from boxes. It and can put on a hat. ​ Social skills and speech Upon request, the child begins to point to objects in a picture. It increasingly understands and tries to follow verbal commands such as bring, take away, find, and show. It can say 20 to 30 words and starts to combine 2-3 words. It asks for food and drink (with words) and repeats two or more words at the end of a sentence. It enjoys imitating domestic works. If the mother encourages regular potty training, "accidents" are less frequent, but the child still doesn't report on its own. 19-21 months Gross motor skills The child is now a restless force. They can stand up and sit down on their own, and pick up objects from the floor while standing without falling. They can climb stairs with minimal support and begin to alternate their feet. They try to jump and walk backward. They also attempt to kick a ball. ​ Fine motor skills The child can build a tower of four to five blocks. They are more skillful in using a spoon and fork, and can drink from a cup holding it with both hands. They try to feed themselves. They make their first attempts at drawing circular shapes. ​ Social skills and speech The child starts using a potty. They look at picture books on their own, comment on them, and point with their finger. They can dress in simple clothes. In the second half of the second year, most children make radical progress in their spoken language development. They begin to understand the symbolic meaning of words. It is essential to name everything during this period to support their language development, from everything they see, hear, do (or what we do), and experience. This creates a strong and clear connection between the object, activity, and word. They understand that everything has a name and ask "what is it?" many times a day. 22-24 months (up to 2 years) Gross motor skills The child can walk up and down stairs without support, usually alternating their feet. They can briefly balance on one foot. They kick and transfer weight more skillfully, and attempt more challenging movements like jumping and backing up. They try walking on curbs, benches, and lines. They ride push toys and manipulate toy strollers. ​ Fine motor skills The child can undress and dress dolls and operate very simple car tracks and trains. They draw circular and vertical lines. They enjoy looking at picture books and comment on the pictures. They prefer closed circle reading. They build towers occasionally using four to six blocks or long trains of blocks. ​ Social skills and speech The child can manage to feed themselves, almost dress themselves, unzip and button large buttons with minor help. They use spoons and forks more skillfully and partially feed themselves. They drink from a cup almost without accidents. They can use around 200-300 words, which is ten times more than six months ago! They start to connect words, at first placing only two words together, then learning how to inflect and conjugate them. The words the child first learns are usually nouns, followed by verbs and adjectives. By the age of two, the child usually refers to themselves in the third person (by their name). They occasionally announce the need to use the toilet, but they still don't have reliable control over their sphincters and need to be reminded, especially during playtime. 25-27 months Gross motor skills The child is able to maintain balance on a small area of the foot and gradually learns to walk on tiptoes. They can hold their balance on one foot for a short time and attempt to jump with both feet. They also try somersaults. ​ Fine motor skills The child can make more controlled pencil strokes on paper, and can manage circular movements, vertical and horizontal lines. They can build a tower with up to eight blocks or a long train made of carefully arranged blocks. ​ Social skills and speech Around the age of two, most children begin to develop relationships with other children of the same age. Parallel play (playing next to each other but not together) usually starts at this age, and by the third year, play becomes more collaborative or competitive. The child maintains personal hygiene, feeds themselves, but still likes being fed. They can drink from a cup with few spills. They enjoy looking at picture books, can follow simple stories, and understand basic colors and can sort objects by type, size, color, or material. Their social understanding increases, and by the age of two, they know many words to describe their internal processes (thinking, wishing, feeling). From the beginning of the third year, the child starts to speak in the first person ("I"). 28-30 months Gross motor skills The child walks on tiptoes, jumps up and down, and tries to jump forward. It attempts to hop on one foot and enjoys overcoming obstacles. Quick movements are still an irresistible and inseparable activity. It "dances" to music, throws with both hands, and tries to catch a ball, albeit clumsily. When climbing stairs, it alternates feet. ​ Fine motor skills The child draws circles, vertical and horizontal lines with a pencil, and attempts to imitate a cross. It builds a tower of eight blocks and a long train of blocks carefully placed one after the other, with a chimney added later. ​ Social skills and speech The child feeds itself but still likes to be fed and drinks from a cup. It can form sentences with 8-9 words, looks through picture books, and tells simple stories based on them, as well as those it has heard from parents. 31-36 months Gross motor skills At this age, a child is less resilient than an adult, but otherwise they can manage almost all common gross motor skills. They can jump from a height of 20 cm, run, walk, change direction quickly, walk up and down stairs (alternating feet), walk on tiptoes, and catch a large ball (if not thrown too quickly). They can operate simple machines such as tricycles, pedal cars, and push toys. Fine motor skills The child can unbutton and button with great effort. They can control a pencil enough to draw a circle, vertical and horizontal lines, and a cross by connecting two lines. They can draw a man with spider-like legs and arms growing out of the head. They enjoy working with paper, folding, gluing, and trying to cut. They can build a tower with 9-10 blocks and, after seeing a demonstration, can even try to build a "bridge". Social skills and speech The child maintains bodily cleanliness, dresses and undresses independently, and can recognize when they need to use the toilet. They can take care of themselves and are dry at night. They communicate more or less objectively and can use between 700 and 900 words. They understand 2-3 prepositions (e.g. put the block on, under, behind the cup, next to the cup, between the cups). They can tell stories, describe events they have experienced, use complex sentences, and understand concepts such as big, small, up, down, loud, and quiet. They can identify two colors and repeat up to three numbers. They may already recognize some letters or "read" headlines and car logos they know well. They are increasingly willing to play with other children and are able to share toys and work together towards a common goal. If a child is still not speaking at three years of age, it may be a case of developmental language disorder, which has a systemic character and requires psychological, speech therapy, phoniatric, and audiologic assessment. In some cases, it may also be necessary to carry out a neurological or vision assessment. It is important to determine whether the child is experiencing a minor problem (such as a slight delay in vocabulary and pronunciation) or whether there is a more serious underlying issue (such as developmental dysphasia, mental retardation, autism, unidentified hearing or vision impairment). ​ Article author: PhDr. Marja Volemanová, PhD. Main sources:​ Langmeier Josef; Krejčířová Dana (2006). Vývojová psychologie. Praha: Grada. ISBN 978-80-247-1284-0 Lazzari Simona (2013), Vývoj dítěte v 1.-3. roce. Praha: Grada. ISBN 978-80-247-3734-8 Verhoeven Liesbeth (2010). Stap voor stap. Amsterdam: Lannoo. ISBN 978-90-209-9190-1 Verhulst Frank (2017). De ontwikkeling van het kind. Assen: Uitgeverij Koninklijke Van Gorcum. ISBN 978-90-232-5423-2

The development of motor skills and the trajectory of development are an excellent indicator of the proper maturation of the nervous system during the early years of childhood. If there are visible deviations in the child's psychomotor development, the primary reflexes are likely to persist. The risk period ranges from the embryonic stage of the child's development to the end of the first year of life. 1) From the embryonic phase up to the third trimester of pregnancy, the factors that have the most impact are mainly from the mother's side. This includes her overall health, nutrition, whether she engaged in enough physical exercise, and her stress levels during pregnancy. 2) In addition to the factors during pregnancy, complications during childbirth can also impact the development of primary reflexes. This may include conditions like hypoxia, delivery through the use of forceps, bell (vacuum extraction) or caesarean section. The insufficient development of primary reflexes can lead to difficulties during childbirth, as these reflexes play a vital role in the mechanics of labor and the movement of the fetus through the birth canal. To understand why primary reflexes may not be well developed by the end of a healthy pregnancy, it is necessary to investigate the embryonic and fetal stages of development. 3) In the first year of life, the persistence of primary reflexes is mainly influenced by various risk factors such as diseases, feeding problems (due to health complications and undeveloped search and sucking reflexes), and stress. Deviations in psychomotor development can indicate abnormal primary reflex development. Symptoms of abnormal reflex development may include: Delayed motor development (such as delayed crawling or climbing) Stiffening of the child when picked up Poor suction High or low muscle tone Discomfort during activities such as changing clothes or bathing. 4) Insufficient natural movement can also impact the development of primary reflexes. The activity of primary reflexes during the first few months of a child's life is closely linked to their psychomotor development. The activation of primary reflexes facilitates the development of neural connections in the central nervous system, allowing the child to learn new skills. Once the given reflex is inhibited by higher brain centers, the child can progress to the next stage of development. However, if the child lacks opportunities to move their body, the primary reflexes will not be activated enough to develop the necessary neural connections in the CNS. As a result, the higher brain centers may be unable to suppress the primary reflexes.

Every preschooler will eventually become a student, and this period is a significant stage in their life, not only for them but also for their parents. The decision about whether to enter school or postpone compulsory school attendance for one year depends on several factors. In this context, it is necessary to clarify several concepts first. School readiness from a psychological perspective, takes into account the biological basis and the process of maturation. In biological terms, it refers to a certain level of maturity of the central nervous system, which is a prerequisite for the types of learning required in school. School readiness is determined through a complex set of test methods in educational and psychological counseling centers. Generally, it means that the child has matured for the school requirements in the biological, social, and psychological aspects. School readiness from a pedagogical point of view , takes into account the learning process. However, both concepts (psychological and pedagogical) are closely related and intertwined. School readiness can be characterized by several components, including internal factors such as the maturity of the central nervous system and the development of cognitive processes, as well as external factors such as the influence of the environment and upbringing, as a child's development always occurs in interaction with the environment in which they grow up. School immaturity has several aspects: physical immaturity (inadequate growth, poor health, increased illness), psychological immaturity (slower maturation of the central nervous system, which manifests in lower levels of perception, poor expression skills, including speech disorders, delayed development of graphomotor skills, and poor concentration), and social immaturity (lack of social experience in children who did not attend preschool, excessive fixation on parents). In the Czech Republic, compulsory schooling begins at the beginning of the school year following the day the child turns six years old, unless a deferment is granted. Compulsory schooling lasts for nine school years, but no later than the end of the school year in which the student turns seventeen. This also includes any years in which the student may have repeated a grade. In other words, by attending school for nine years regardless of academic performance, the student fulfills compulsory schooling and can complete their education. Early enrollment in compulsory schooling is possible in the Czech Republic for children who turn six years old between September and the end of June of the relevant school year, provided they are reasonably physically and mentally mature and their legal representatives (parents) requests it. The child's maturity is assessed by teachers during enrollment, kindergarten teachers, psychologists in counseling centers, and pediatricians in clinics. In the Czech Republic, a request for a deferral of compulsory schooling must be submitted in writing by the child's legal representatives (parents) by May 31 of the calendar year in which the child is to begin compulsory schooling. If the request is supported by a recommendation from the appropriate school counseling facility and a medical or clinical psychologist, the school principal may defer compulsory schooling for one year. If a student in the first year of compulsory school attendance shows insufficient physical or mental maturity to fulfill compulsory school attendance, the school principal may, with the consent of the student's legal representative, postpone the start of compulsory school attendance to the following school year during the first semester of the school year. So school readiness means that a child has matured in terms of their biological, social, and psychological development to meet the demands of school. The child is capable of being separated from their family without suffering. They are able to engage with their peers in school, meet basic school requirements, such as focusing on work during class, not speaking when the teacher or another student is speaking, delaying immediate needs such as eating, drinking, or using the restroom, and adapting to the demands of a foreign authority. An important prerequisite for school attendance is the natural curiosity of the child. The conditions for school readiness are therefore: Biological: sufficient growth and physical fitness (motor skills) of the child and their health status Social: the ability to separate from the family, communicate with peers without difficulty, and respect the authority of the teacher Psychological: motivation to gain new knowledge and discover new environments Cognitive maturity: memory capacity, language skills, and the ability to store basic information in certain contexts. Test of School Readiness for Parents of Preschool Children (Kucharska, Švancarová, 2004) The child is physically mature enough (measuring more than 115 cm and weighing more than 20 kg). It is agile and dexterous. It can handle a pencil, draw basic geometric shapes, and express simple concepts through drawing. It pronounces all sounds correctly and articulates even more challenging words (such as Thursday, cricket, marmalade...). It can express its thoughts verbally without any distortions, dysgrammatisms, or neologisms. It can recognize the initial and final sounds in a word. It can complete a puzzle, solve a maze, or find details in a picture. It can handle a number sequence up to 10, compare small amounts of objects (more/less), express the amount using specific objects, and occasionally do simple addition and subtraction. It is spatially aware and uses terms to describe position (up, down...), identifies the first and last element (and possibly others) in a sequence. It can focus on a task and listen. It does not need to nap after lunch, and getting up in the morning is not a significant problem. It is not afraid of strangers, can ask for a toy or help, and has no problems participating in group activities with peers. It can participate in games with rules. It is not overly tearful, and mood swings between joy and sorrow do not alternate quickly. If the child does not meet more than 5-7 of these assumptions, it is advisable to initiate an examination at a pedagogical-psychological counseling center. Zdroj: Kucharská, A, Švancarová, D. Bezstarostné roky? Praha: Scientia 2004 Every school has slightly different ways and procedures for enrollment, but they all look at several areas. Let's take a closer look at each area. Physical development and motor skills Before entering primary school, children on average reach a height of 120 cm and a weight of about 20 kg. A child who is adequately physically developed has already gone through changes in body structure and is physically fitter, which is a prerequisite for better coping with initial school demands. It is usually evident at first glance when a child is significantly smaller than their peers. Often, this circumstance plays a role for parents when deciding to postpone their child's school attendance. Physical fitness also relates to coordination of movements. Children's physical fitness plays a role not only in social contacts, where the child easily participates in joint activities, but also contributes to their emotional development. A physically developed child is more confident, can better overcome obstacles, and is more resilient to stress. If a child cannot yet manage to jump on one leg, climb ladders, or manipulate a ball, it will also affect their fine motor skills, including graphomotor skills necessary for writing. Correctly holding a pencil with three fingers is crucial for future writing, and it is good for a child to learn it before entering school because a wrong habit is very difficult to eliminate later. The child will need to be able to track letters with their eyes from left to right in school. Therefore, it is good for the child to get used to starting every activity from the left in a row. A physically immature child feels excessively tired, which strains their immune system and increases their sickness. Due to frequent absences from school, the child's relationship with learning and school may subsequently be disturbed because they will not have continuity in learning. Laterality Before starting school, it should already be more or less clear which hand the child will write with. Laterality is a reflection of the dominance of brain centers. The most famous manifestations of laterality are right-handedness and left-handedness, with a preference for one of the paired organs, which then works faster, better, and more efficiently, occurring in most children from about two and a half years of age. Children who do not clearly favor one hand at the start of compulsory school attendance are at a disadvantage because they need to perform activities falling into the fine motor skills complex in teaching. Students who alternate hands when writing are unclear about how to place the paper and hold the pencil, and these movements are insufficiently automated for them. Bilateral integration plays a role in automating the planning of targeted movements and contributes to cognitive awareness of certain spatial concepts, such as right and left. The tendency to switch hands and the inability to develop dominant hand skills may be related to a problem with vestibular processing of sensations or the persistence of certain primary reflexes. If hand dominance is not yet clear, it is appropriate to perform a laterality test or undergo an assessment at an educational-psychological counseling center (in the Czech Republic called Pedagogicko-psychologická poradna). Speech Good verbal communication skills are very important for adapting well to school. A good understanding of language is assumed so that the child can comprehend the teacher's communication and show respect. Active communication skills simplify integration into social groups. Other communication skills include non-verbal communication, proper pronunciation, and a sufficiently rich vocabulary. A child with a limited vocabulary usually struggles with fluent expression. Incorrect pronunciation can be caused by, among other things, inadequate maturity of the central nervous system. In such cases, the child cannot recognize the quality of sounds quickly and accurately, resulting in imprecise imitation. Sometimes the child can accurately imitate a sound but cannot differentiate it properly in words. Incorrect pronunciation can also be caused by motor awkwardness of the speech organs or a functional defect. The child's upbringing environment or incorrect speech models (e.g. parents who stutter) can also play a negative role in speech development. Thinking Preschool children rely on the immediate relationship between perception and imagination. However, just before starting school, thinking reaches the level of so-called concrete logical operations. Therefore, it is possible to work with children on superior and subordinate concepts. If the child cannot do it yet, it will be difficult for them to understand mathematics without a visual example. Memory An important prerequisite for intentional learning is the development of memory, including auditory (what we heard, what the teacher said), visual (what we saw), and motor (how we did it) memory. Visual memory is important for memorizing the shape of letters, which is a prerequisite for reading and writing. Attention Attention depends on children's interests. Therefore, it is important to develop attention to something that the child enjoys. Before entering elementary school, the child should be able to complete a task. Attention and concentration are closely related to the development of self-control and perseverance. Inadequate concentration is one of the most common reasons for deferring school attendance. Perception Visual and auditory perception must be more differentiated before starting school, meaning that children should be able to see/hear small differences and details. Practicing with worksheets in preschool is helpful. Psychologically immature children cannot use their mental capacity, experience failure, and are not motivated to learn. They often react with inappropriate psychological defense mechanisms, such as neurotic symptoms (e.g. school phobia), psychosomatic disorders (abdominal pain, headache), behavioral disorders, negativity, etc. These children are also often restless, unfocused, playful, have problems with visual discrimination and graphomotor skills, which quickly leads to aversion to writing, as they experience repeated negative experiences regardless of the teacher's possible tolerant evaluation. Social maturity Social maturity is one of the prerequisites for a successful start in school. The level of self-regulatory processes is a prerequisite for acceptable adaptation to school and subsequently for academic success. The overall development of these processes aims to create a higher form of regulation than emotional regulation, which is willpower and awareness of duty. A socially immature child may appear passive - they may not want to participate or, conversely, they may constantly provoke conflicts and be unwilling to back down. Emotional maturity Emotional stability is a condition for a child to be able to cope with potential failure. Both of these are usually managed by appropriately self-confident and independent children. If a child is motivated, sees meaning in new activities and collaboration, is willing to acquire knowledge and learn, they are likely emotionally and intellectually mature. Work maturity The area of work maturity includes the ability to concentrate, complete tasks, but also choose an appropriate work pace. Social and work immaturity is often the cause of deferred school attendance. These are usually shy, introverted, passive, unfocused, slow, dependent children, but also children who have little confidence, fear exploration and learning new things for fear of not being able to handle it. An emotionally immature child experiences anxiety or fear regardless of their learning progress. They may also be fixated on their family and may have difficulty coping with competitive environments, evaluations of results, etc. Postponement of School Attendance In the Czech Republic, the postponement of compulsory school attendance is governed by Section 37 of Act No. 561/2004 Coll., on Pre-school, Basic, Secondary, Higher Vocational, and Other Education (the "Education Act"). Every parent is required to register their child for compulsory school attendance between January 15 and February 15 of the calendar year in which the child is to begin compulsory school attendance. Compulsory school attendance begins in the school year following the day on which the child reaches the age of six. This means that parents must also register their child for school even if they decide to postpone attendance . When registering for the first year of primary school, the school informs the child's legal representative about the possibility of postponing compulsory school attendance. The Education Act defines the postponement of compulsory school attendance in Section 37 as follows: " If a child is not physically or mentally sufficiently mature after reaching the age of six and the legal representative of the child requests in writing by May 31 of the calendar year in which the child is to begin compulsory school attendance, the headteacher of the school may postpone the start of compulsory school attendance by one school year if the request is supported by a recommendation from the appropriate educational advisory facility and a specialist doctor or clinical psychologist. " In practice, this means that parents or legal representatives cannot decide on their own to postpone their child's school attendance, but are required to provide their request addressed to the relevant primary school with two recommendations. The assessment of the appropriate educational advisory facility means the opinion of the pedagogical-psychological counseling center (PPP), but in the case of a student with disabilities, the opinion of the appropriate special education center (SPC) is required. " The start of compulsory school attendance may be postponed for no longer than until the start of the school year in which the child reaches the age of eight ." Parents request the postponement of compulsory school attendance directly at the time of registration for compulsory school attendance and provide the request in the manner prescribed by law. In such a case, the headteacher of the school may decide directly on the postponement of compulsory school attendance. However, it is also possible not to request the postponement at the time of registration, but only to inform about the possibility of granting it. Parents request the postponement of compulsory school attendance from the headteacher of the school later, when they have all the necessary documents. However, the decision about the postponement must be made before the start of the relevant school year. The parent delivers a copy of the decision to defer to the kindergarten, which extends the child's stay in the kindergarten by one year on this basis. During this year, the child no longer has to receive education for free, because according to §123 para. 2 of the School Act, education is provided to the child free of charge for a maximum of 12 months in the last year of kindergarten. If a child's school attendance is deferred by one year, the parent is obliged to register the child again for the following year. The School Act also takes into account the situation where unpreparedness for compulsory school attendance becomes apparent during the first year of primary school: " If a student shows insufficient physical or mental maturity for compulsory school attendance during the first year, the school principal may, with the consent of the student's legal representative, defer the start of compulsory school attendance to the following school year during the first semester of the school year. " In both cases where the school principal decides to defer compulsory school attendance, they will also recommend to the child's legal representative that the child either be educated in a so called preparatory class of the primary school or continue in the last year of kindergarten. However, additional deferral seems to be the least suitable option for addressing school immaturity because a child who returns to kindergarten after spending some time in school is exposed to great psychological stress. The child may lose confidence in their abilities and develop a lack of trust towards school. A psychologist assesses additional deferral of school attendance based on an examination and available materials provided by the child's teacher. A better option is starting in a so called preparatory class. Risk of unjustified postponement of school attendance According to psychologists, an unjustified postponement of school attendance is associated with a certain risk. The child may lose motivation for schoolwork and may miss the time when it is set to start school. Matějček points out developmental regularities when the child should not be overloaded or under-stimulated and underestimated: " His mental capacity is not properly utilized, but (worse) is not being developed - so the child is actually neglected" (Matějček, 2005). The child may get bored in preschool because their friends have already gone to school. When they finally start school after a year, they may get bored in school - at first, everything seems easy, but they may not learn how to learn right from the beginning. This problem will manifest later when the material becomes new even for a very advanced child. Preparatory classes "Preparatory classes" are in the Czech Republic originally established at primary schools and are intended for children who are socially disadvantaged – from a family background with low socio-cultural status, children at risk of social pathological phenomena, or asylum-seeking children. The aim of the preparatory class is to teach children communication, basic self-care, the Czech language, and ensure their relatively trouble-free transition to the first grade of primary school. Since the school year 2017/2018, children who are expected to benefit from being placed in a preparatory class and have been granted a deferral of compulsory school attendance may now attend a preparatory class in primary school. The decision to place a child in a preparatory class is made by the school principal upon request from the legal guardian and a recommendation from the relevant counselling facility. Preparatory classes should not replace the role of kindergarten but should help level the development of those children who, for any reason, have a deferral of compulsory school attendance. Preparatory classes, therefore, focus on levelling the child's development with regard to their school immaturity at a time when they should already be fulfilling compulsory school attendance. Teachers in preparatory classes should focus exclusively on children who have been granted a deferral of compulsory school attendance and who, for some objective reason, need to level their development. A preparatory class can be established if at least 10 children will attend. If an insufficient number of children enrols in the preparatory class, the principal may request permission from the founder to exempt the school from the minimum number of children according to Section 23 (4) of the School Act. Children in preparatory classes learn skills that they will need for school, but in a playful way. They complete worksheets, practice graphomotor or speech therapy exercises, gross and fine motor skills. The teacher develops their speech, social and communication skills, attention concentration, and so on. The main aim of the preparatory class is the all-around development of the child, and primarily their psychological, physical, and social readiness to enter the first grade. The difference compared to the final year of kindergarten is the teaching time and the number of children per teacher. While there is one teacher for up to 28 children in kindergarten, a preparatory class can have a maximum of 15 children per teacher. Lessons are taught as in primary school from 8 am and usually last four hours. Unlike kindergarten, children bring food from home and eat it in the classroom. After classes, the child, like primary school pupils, goes for lunch and, if necessary, to an after-school club. Just like school children, children have a school bag and writing supplies. The child attends preparatory class for one school year. All national holidays and vacations apply to them - just like other elementary school students. Early admission According to the Education Act §36, para. 3, " a child who reaches the age of six from September to the end of June of the relevant school year may be admitted to compulsory school attendance in this school year if it is reasonably physically and mentally mature and its legal representative requests it" . If the child is born from September to December, comprehensive examination at the pedagogical-psychological counseling center (PPP) must precede their early school admission. If the child is born from January to June, a medical specialist's opinion is also required. If the child is to succeed in school with older classmates, it is not enough to be mature for their age, but it must be clearly ahead in its development. Even if it may seem mature (e.g., already able to read), very often it is a child with uneven development of psychological functions. In this case, early school admission is not recommended because it would mean a very high burden for the child, which could also lead to academic failure. A problem may also arise later in puberty. The age difference between a child who started school early and a child who had a deferral is up to two years, which is a significant difference during this fragile period. The child who started school early will still want to play, while older children have already entered puberty and have completely different interests. The decision on early admission of a child to elementary education is issued by the school principal. In case of a negative result, it is not necessary for the child to attend the registration the following year. Generally, it is assumed that the child will start school in the school year indicated on the decision. If there is a change of address and the child is enrolled in another school, it is necessary to report this fact. Author of the article: PhDr. Marja Volemanová, PhD. Main sources: Bednářová, Jiřina et kol (2017). Školní zralost a její diagnostika. Praha: Raabe. ISBN 978-80-7496-319-3 Edice Dobrá škola. Diagnostika školní zralosti. Praha: Raabe. ISBN 978-80-87553-52-7 Kucharská, A; Švancarová, Dana (2004). Bezstarostné roky? Praha: Scientia Školský zákon.

Primary reflexes have the potential to cause poor coordination of movements, deficits in fine motor skills, issues with pronunciation, and challenges with concentration. If you, or for instance, a kindergarten teacher, notice that a child requires assistance in order to be well-prepared for school, it is advisable to have their primary reflexes evaluated. A newborn baby is inundated with an overwhelming amount of stimuli that their developing brain is not yet equipped to process effectively. Primary reflexes aid in responding appropriately to these stimuli, making them particularly prevalent during the initial six months of a child's life. The motor development of a child is closely tied to primary reflex activity. As the baby interacts with their environment, primary reflexes are employed, stimulating the formation of neural connections in the brain, the differentiation of nerve cells, and the establishment of connections with higher brain centers. Consequently, the movements produced by primary reflexes contribute to the formation of a dense neural network that enables the connection of distinct brain areas. These connections play a crucial role in future learning processes, communication skills, emotional and social development, and motivation. As the higher brain centers mature, primary reflexes gradually become inhibitory and must be suppressed. If primary reflexes persist, they can have counterproductive effects on optimal neurological development. Primary reflexes can impact sensory perception, balance, coordination, and learning ability. Impairment in one function can have a negative impact on others. Thus, some children may experience developmental delays or face difficulties in school due to persistent primary reflexes. In some instances, these problems can persist into adulthood, with individuals struggling to cope with everyday stressors. In preschool-aged children, coordination, fine motor skills, and pronunciation may pose challenges, while concentration may be noticeably poorer, even if the child does not yet have to focus for periods of 45 minutes, as is required in school. When working at a desk, children with a persistent Tonic Labyrinthine reflex do not keep their torso upright and tend to "lay" on the desk. They may also hold their heads with their hands or sit on their heels. This reflex can lead to hypotonus or less muscle tone, which can result in a bloated tummy, weak abdominal muscles, greater kyphosis of the thoracic spine, and lordosis of the lumbar spine. Alternatively, if the reflex persists more into extension, children may experience hypertonus or increased muscle tone, with firm muscles, tiptoe walking, and increased hypertonus when happy or angry, which can cause them to cup their toes and wave their arms. Moro's reflex is a startle reflex of newborns. A newborn baby cannot yet correctly analyze whether a stimulus is dangerous or not. Therefore, the Moro reflex is triggered from the brainstem (as if we switched to "survival mode"). Persistence of the reflex can be the cause of balance and coordination disorders. It can cause poor coordination of movements, which can be particularly noticeable during ball games, where they may close their eyes when catching the ball. When the reflex is activated, it stimulates the production of adrenaline and cortisol, also known as stress hormones, which can increase a child's reactivity and sensitivity. As a result, the child may be hypersensitive to some sensory stimuli and react to them inadequately, perceiving all stimuli equally strongly. This inability to filter important perceptions from unimportant ones is stressful, leading to two types of reactions: fear, preferring to stay aloof, and difficulty adjusting to physical contact, similar to a child with ADD, (rather to perceive nothing than to perceive everything) or hyperactivity, aggression, or irritability, similar to a child with ADHD (needs to release stress) Chronic stress can also affect gland and digestive system function, leading to biochemical and nutritional imbalances. The child may experience fatigue, lack of endurance, mood swings, anxiety, shyness, lack of concentration, and hyperactivity. Persistent Moro reflex can cause insufficient control of eye movements, restless and volatile eye movements, and hypersensitivity to light, sound, and temperature stimuli, which are perceived as threatening factors.They can also react strong to auditive information, therefore react strongly to e.g. a barking dog or the sound of a blender. The Moro reflex has an overall effect on the child's psyche. Another primary reflex, the Asymmetric Tonic Neck Reflex (ATNR) , affects fine motor skills and the correct cooperation of the cerebral hemispheres, causing delayed lateralization. You can see this if the child cannot choose whether to write (draw) with the right or left hand. When drawing a picture on a large paper, he holds the pencil in his right hand when he draws on the right side of the paper, and then switches it to his left hand when he wants to draw something on the left side. Holding a pencil tends to be convulsive. This reflex also plays a role in speech production, which involves several centers in the brain that must send signals to each other quickly. The palmar reflex is a tactile reflex that changes the feeling in the hands. Children who are very sensitive may not like playing with sand or finger paints, while those who are not very sensitive may seek different textures and materials.These children like to play with sand or even with food. Problems with feeling in the hands may also lead to problems with fine motor skills and pronunciation, becuase of a neural connection between the centers in the brain for both the hands and the mouth. Therefore, children who have problems with fine motor skills often have problems with pronunciation and vice versa. Other tactile reflexes are the sucking and searching reflexes. A persistent sucking reflex causes problems with pronunciation. The tongue is placed too far forward in the mouth, making it difficult to control the tongue. Therefore, children have problems with speaking, swallowing, drooling, they have poorer coordination between speaking and breathing, and they cannot eat with their mouth closed. Children with a persistent rooting reflex often need oral stimulation. They always need to chew or suck something, so for example they suck their thumbs, hair, pencils, collars, etc. for a long time. This can create a "gothic palate" - a very high and narrow upper palate. A persistent sucking and seeking reflex can also cause the child to dislike different food consistencies. Here too, if the problem is in the meringue, it will affect the hands as well - fine motor skills tend to be worse. Overall, primary reflexes have a significant impact on a child's development. While kindergarteners may not need to sit still and concentrate for long periods, problems can quickly escalate in school. Children have less movement, so posture problems quickly arise. Children cannot sit still, need to rest their head on an arm, roll on the bench, swing or sit on their heels. The demands on fine motor skills are great (he has to learn to write), which quickly leads to a convulsive grip on the pencil. The child's brain becomes overloaded, so they become either overactive or lose focus. So if you suspect that your child still has primary reflexes, it is best to resolve this before starting school. If the problems are minor, Neuro-Developmental Stimulation " NDS Learning through Movement" will certainly be sufficient, which can be offered by a trained speech therapist, special pedagogue or teacher right in your kindergarten . If the child has more difficulties, individual therapy may be needed as part of Neuro-Developmental Therapy. Author of the article: PhDr. Marja Volemanová, PhD. Disclaimer:  The information provided in this article is specific to the Czech educational system and may not apply to other countries. Educational systems, policies, and practices vary widely around the world, so please consider this context when interpreting the content.

The basis of Neuro-Developmental Stimulation (NDS) is Neuro-Developmental Therapy. Tests and exercises are based on the psychomotor development of the child and are adapted to be well-suited for use with larger groups of children. Professionals such as speech therapists, psychologists, educators, and special educators can work with Neuro-Developmental Stimulation after successfully completing an introductory theoretical course and a follow-up practical course on Neuro-Developmental Stimulation NDS Learning through Movement at the Cortex Academy. The program is divided into 30 weeks, but it is possible to continue the exercises for a longer period if necessary. The exercises are done every school day, for approximately 5-10 minutes (for example, before starting the regular lessons). The NDS program is suitable for entire classes, not just for children with obvious learning difficulties. It is beneficial for children who can handle schoolwork and are not recognized as having persistent primary reflexes or impaired sensory integration, but who still benefit from the exercises. If a child does not have persistent primary reflexes, it is not possible to evoke them again through exercise. However, the exercises automatically strengthen the deep stabilizing system, which is beneficial for everyone, including children without difficulties. The exercises are varied, ranging from simple head lifting to crawling and using all parts of the body at once. The exercises are done in a smooth and controlled manner. The exercises often mimic the movement patterns of a two- to nine-month-old baby, which form the basis for all subsequent targeted movements, such as fine motor skills. Many exercises are done lying on the floor, which helps develop proper head and body posture, as this is the foundation for proper body posture in later years. The exercises improve the ability to use and distinguish the left and right sides of the body, as well as the upper and lower parts of the body (which is a basic requirement for proper coordination). One of the most important principles of NDS is to first develop balance in children and combine inhibition of primary reflexes with improving sensory integration, and only later add additional skills. Another important principle is that NDS utilizes the natural craniocaudal direction of development, meaning from head to toe. Without holding the head correctly, other movement patterns will not develop properly. The exercises must be done in a certain order. Once all the children can perform the exercises completely automatically, the group can move on to the next set of exercises. The exercises are practiced as precisely as possible. However, with younger children, exercises can be performed more dynamically (faster). Each day, one exercise is usually performed for balance or propriocepcion (body awareness), followed by one exercise for primary reflexes in prone and supine positions, and the last exercise is for calming or strengthening sensory integration However, it is important to emphasize that this program lasts approx. 30 weeks. Exercise takes approximately 10 minutes each (school) day. If exercises are not done daily, the results will not be as satisfactory. Neuro- Developmental Stimulation is provided by professionals such as speech therapists, special educators, teachers, psychologists, physiotherapists, and others who have completed courses at Cortex Academy®. Currently (2021), more than 600 professionals have completed NDS courses. As a guarantee of the quality of the services provided, certified NDS centers have also been established. The list of certified facilities can be found on the website www.cortexacademy.cz/certifikovana-pracoviste. Article author: PhDr. Marja Volemanová, PhD.

" Specific learning disorders" is a collective term for a diverse group of conditions that manifest as significant difficulties in acquiring and utilizing skills such as speaking, understanding spoken language, reading, writing, mathematical reasoning, or counting. These disorders are inherent to the affected individual and are presumed to result from dysfunction of the central nervous system. Although a learning disorder may co-occur with other forms of disability (e.g., sensory impairments) or with environmental factors (cultural differences, inadequate or inappropriate teaching), it is not a direct consequence of such disabilities or adverse influences " (Matějček 1995). The terms "specific developmental disorders of learning or behavior", "specific learning disorders", and "developmental learning disorders" are overarching concepts that include dyslexia, dysgraphia, dysorthographia, dyscalculia, dyspraxia, dysphonia, and dysmuzia. The last three are specific to the Czech language and may not be encountered in foreign literature. All of these disorders have an individual character and arise from so-called dysfunctions of the central nervous system. In terms of development, these dysfunctions signify incomplete function. Therefore, in the nomenclature of individual specific disorders, the prefix "dys-" means insufficient or incorrect development of a skill, while the second part of the term indicates which skill is weakened. Dyslexia , derived from the Latin word "lego, leger", meaning to read, is a specific reading disorder. Dysgraphia , from the Greek word "grapho", meaning to write, is a specific writing disorder. Dysorthography , from the Greek words "orthos" (correct) and "grapho" (write), is a specific spelling disorder and is present in 90-95% of individuals with dyslexia. Dyscalculia , from the Latin word "calculus" (number), is a specific mathematical function disorder. Dyspraxia , from the Greek word "praxis" (action), is a specific disorder affecting the ability to carry out complex tasks, most commonly motor clumsiness, and is also known as a specific developmental disorder of motor function. Dyspynxia , from the Latin word "pingo, pingere", meaning to paint or draw, is a specific disorder affecting visual arts skills. Dysmuzia , from the Greek word "muse", meaning goddess of art, is a specific disorder affecting musical abilities. In schools, pedagogical diagnosis is the fundamental starting point for determining support measures for primary education, not for diagnosis. The goal is to propose specific intervention measures based on specific descriptions of difficulties and other findings. In the Czech republic, to establish a diagnosis of a specific developmental disorder, assessment in a Pedagogical-Psychological Counseling Center (in czech PPP) or a Special Education Center (in czech SPC) is required. Persistent and significant learning difficulties and any pedagogical intervention in primary and secondary schools are prerequisites for diagnosis. More important than a diagnosis is identifying the fundamental areas where a child is struggling. Take a look at the metaphorical Tree of Child Development on the homepage. We can help children the most by identifying where they have weaknesses and then expect improvement once these areas are addressed. If we address everything we can, children will have more time and energy to focus on what they truly struggle with. If they have a developmental disorder and also have persistent primitive reflexes, sensory integration difficulties, or problems with "partial functions" such as visual and auditory perception, it can become overwhelming for them. Primary reflexes influence a child's psychomotor development, and therefore affect the foundation of everything. As a result, persistent primitive reflexes can have various symptoms. If these symptoms are connected in some way, it may cause symptoms of various learning disorders (such as dyslexia, dysgraphia...), autism or attention deficit disorder (ADHD, ADD). Sensory integration: Rarely do we use only one sensory system. Each sensory system works in harmony with the others. In a process called sensory integration, our brains mediate complex and complete images of the environment. The brain detects, organizes, and allows us to use this information effectively. These two areas are the foundation for other areas: Auditory perception disorder: Analysis and synthesis of speech sounds are important prerequisites for mastering writing. A child should be able to hear small differences in speech (nonsense words like flas-klas are used in tests).'. If we say the letters D-O-G, they should be able to create the word 'dog' from them. Before starting the first grade, they should also be able to distinguish the first and ideally the last letter in words. Visual perception disorders: Perceiving small visual differences is necessary to see differences between, for example, p, b, d, and q. Distinguishing figure and background is also important, as well as visual-motor coordination (hand-eye coordination). Spatial orientation perception disorders depend primarily on visual, auditory, and kinesthetic (movement) perception. Supporting the perception of temporal sequences is also beneficial, not only for children who have difficulty distinguishing vowel lengths. Interventions must respect the developmental abilities of the child. For example, if a child has problems with auditory perception and also has persistent primitive reflexes, we must start with the primitive reflexes. Without addressing the "foundation" (primitive reflexes and sensory integration), further intervention will not be as effective. Article author: Marja Volemanová